BOOK I
Preface
1. When I realized there was such a zealous and eager pursuit of secular learning, that the majority of mankind hope thereby to obtain worldly wisdom, I was deeply grieved that Holy Scripture lacked public teachers since secular authors certainly have a powerful and widespread tradition. Together with blessed Agapetus, Pope of Rome, I made efforts to collect money for expenses to enable Christian schools in the city of Rome to employ learned teachers from whom the faithful might gain eternal salvation for their souls and the adornment of fine, pure eloquence for their speech. They say that such a system existed for a long time at Alexandria and that the Hebrews are now using it enthusiastically in Nisibis, a city of Syria. But since I could not accomplish this task because of continual wars and raging battles in the Kingdom of Italy–for peaceful endeavors have no place in a time of unrest–I was moved by divine love to devise for you, with God's help, these introductory books to take the place of a teacher. Through them, God willing, I believe that the textual disposition of Holy Scripture and a compact sketch of secular letters may be unfolded. These works may seem unscholarly since in them you will find not fine eloquence but basic description. But they are of great use to anyone who seeks to know the source both of worldly knowledge and of the salvation of the soul. I transmit in them not my own teaching, but the words of earlier writers which we justly praise and gloriously herald to later generations. Any mention of the ancients in the midst of praising the Lord is not considered tasteless boasting. Furthermore, you indicate your satisfaction with a serious teacher if you question him often; even if you return many times to these books, you will not be checked by any severity.
2. Therefore, beloved brothers, let us ascend without hesitation to Holy Scripture through the praiseworthy commentaries of the Fathers, as if on the ladder of Jacob's vision so that, lifted by their thoughts, we may be worthy to arrive at contemplation of the Lord. For commentary on Scripture is, as it were, Jacob's ladder, by which the angels ascend and descend (Gen. 28:12); on which the Lord leans, stretching out his hand to those who are weary, and supports the tired steps of those ascending by their contemplation of Him. Therefore, we ought to keep this arrangement of the readings, that after the recruits of Christ have learned the Psalms, they may continuously practice the reading of divine authority until they understand the authority thoroughly. The books should be corrected to prevent scribal errors from being fixed in untrained minds, because what is fixed and rooted in the depths of memory is hard to remove. Happy indeed is the mind that has stored such a mysterious treasure in the depths of memory, with God's help; but much happier the mind that knows the ways of understanding from its own energetic investigation. As a result, such a mind vigorously expels human thoughts and is occupied to its salvation with divine eloquence. We recall that we have seen many men with powerful memories who, asked about obscure passages, have solved the questions put to them by examples drawn only from divine authority for a matter stated obscurely in one place is set down more clearly in another book. An example of this is the Apostle Paul who to a large extent in the letter written to the Hebrews elucidates the writings of the Old Testament by their fulfillment in the time of the New.
3. Therefore, dearest brothers, after the soldiers of Christ who have filled themselves with divine study and, grown strong by regular reading, begin to recognize selections in books cited as circumstances dictate, then they may profit from the teachings of this work. It is divided into two books, which include brief annotations on works to be read and set out in proper order for reading them; thus, the student learns where Latin commentators explain each passage. But if he finds something in these writers discussed in a cursory fashion, then those who know Greek should seek from Greek expositors those passages that reveal a path to salvation. In this way indifference and negligence may be destroyed and vital knowledge sought by eager minds in the training school of Christ.
4. They say that the Divine Scriptures of the Old and New Testament from the beginning to the end were elucidated in Greek by Clement of Alexandria surnamed "Stromateus," by Cyril, bishop of the same city, by John Chrysostom, Gregory, and Basil as well as other scholarly men whom eloquent Greece praises. But we, with the Lord's aid, rather seek Latin writers, for we are writing for Italians and so we have appropriately pointed out Roman commentators, for everyone accepts what is reported in his native language more easily. In them a matter may be treated by earlier teachers that cannot be satisfactorily handled by those of today. Therefore we will point out the most learned commentators; when you are sent to such writers you find the proper and full measure of teaching. It will also be better for you not to be guided by striking novelty but to satisfy yourself with the earlier source. Consequently I may teach at my leisure and instruct you with excusable confidence; and I think that this type of instruction is profitable even to us, teaching others in such a way that we most suitably avoid the snares of those who misrepresent us.
5. In the first book we have presented teachers of the former ages who are always available and prepared to teach you, not so much by their speech as through your eyes. Therefore, learned brothers, wisely moderate your desires, and in imitation of those who desire to gain health of the body, learn what is to be read in proper order. For those who want to be cured ask the doctors what foods they should take first, what refreshment they should take next, so that an indiscriminate appetite does not tax rather than restore the failing strength of their weakened limbs.
6. In the second book on the arts and disciplines of liberal studies some few things ought to be deleted; and yet in this material there is little harm to the person who slips, if he errs while keeping his faith firm. Whatever has been found in Divine Scripture on such matters will be better understood if one has prior acquaintance with them. It is well-known that, at the beginning of spiritual wisdom, information on these subjects was sowed, as it were, which secular teachers afterwards cleverly transferred to their own rules, as we have noted at suitable places in our Psalm Commentary.
7. Therefore, pray to God, the source of all that is useful; read constantly; go over the material diligently; for frequent and intense meditation is the mother of understanding. I have not forgotten that the eloquent Cassian in his Conversations Book 5 related that a certain old and simple man had been asked about the most obscure passages of Divine Scripture and that he, after long prayer, with the help of heavenly light understood and explained the most difficult matters to his questioners. He had suddenly gained by divine inspiration what he had not learned before from human teachers. St. Augustine tells a similar story in his Christian Learning of an illiterate foreign servant who through constant prayer suddenly read a book that was handed to him as though he had been taught by long practice in school. Concerning this matter Augustine himself spoke later as follows: although these miracles are surprising, and there is the statement that "all things are possible to those who believe" (Mark 9:22), we ought not to pray for such things often, but rather stick to the practice of ordinary teaching so that we do not rashly seek after those things which are beyond us and risk testing the precept of the Lord who says in Deuteronomy: "You shall not put the Lord your God to the test" (Deut. 6:16), and again says in the Gospel, "an evil and adulterous generation demands a sign," and so forth (Matthew 12:39). Therefore let us pray that those things which are now closed be opened to us and that we never lose our zeal for reading; even David when he was constantly occupied with the law of the Lord nevertheless cried out to the Lord saying, "give me discernment that I may learn your commands" (Psalms 118:73). Such is the sweet gift of this pursuit that the more one understands the more one seeks.
8. Although all Divine Scripture shines with heavenly brilliance and the excellence of the Holy Spirit appears clearly in it, I have dedicated my greatest efforts to the Psalter, the Prophets, and the Apostolic Letters, since they seem to me to touch on deeper profundities, and to contain, as it were, both the glorious height and depth of the whole Divine Scripture. I have read over carefully all nine sections containing the divine authority as best as an old man could. I collated against older copies as my friends read aloud to me from these. In this pursuit I grant that I have struggled, God willing, to achieve a harmonious eloquence without profaning the sacred books by taking undue liberties.
9. We believe this also ought to be noted: St. Jerome, led by consideration for the simple brothers, said in the preface to the Prophets that he had arranged his translation as it is now read today by cola and commata for the sake of those who had not learned punctuation from teachers of secular learning. Guided by the authority of this great man, we have judged that his procedure ought to be followed and that the other books be supplied with these divisions. St. Jerome's divisions by cola and commata in place of punctuation provide sufficient guidance for easy reading. We do not, therefore, presume to surpass the judgment of such a great man. I have left the rest of the books which were not arranged in such system of punctuation to be examined and corrected by the scribes who are responsible for this exacting task. Although they cannot altogether maintain the fine points of orthography, they will hasten to complete at least the correction of the ancient books in every way. They understand their own critical marks which by and large refer and call attention to this skill. To eliminate ingrained error from our midst, we have set down in a following book on the rules of proper spelling a summary that is suited to their intellectual capacity in order to eliminate transmission of crude conjectures of hasty correctors for posterity to complain of. I have tried to locate as many of the earlier writers on orthography as I could for use by the scribes, who can be if not corrected in every respect, at least greatly improved. Correct spelling is usually set out without ambiguity by the Greeks; among the Latin writers it has clearly been ignored because of its difficulty and therefore even now it requires the serious attention of the reader.
10. After this explanatory introduction, it is now time for us to approach the most spiritually healthful gift of religious doctrine, the light of devout minds, a heavenly gift, and a joy which will remain forever–which is briefly touched on in the two books which follow.
I. The Octateuch
1. The first section of Divine Scripture, the Octateuch, begins our enlightenment with an historical account starting from Genesis. St. Basil expounded the beginning of this book in Greek. Eustathius, a learned man, translated it into Latin so successfully that his powerful eloquence seemed to equal the genius of that most learned teacher. Basil extended his nine books up to the creation of man. In them he explained the nature of heaven and earth, of air and of waters, and also disclosed the qualities of practically all created things. Thus he teaches by treating at length in clear detail what was passed over for the sake of brevity in the authoritative text.
2. Father Augustine, too, arguing in his two books against the Manichees, explained the text of Genesis so thoroughly that almost no question in it remains unclarified. And so, the heresy involuntarily offers the opportunity for careful instruction of Catholics by the way it is refuted and boldly defeated. We have added these books in the copy of Basil with the intention of making the text of Genesis more accessible to the reader.
3. St. Ambrose, a lucid and pleasant teacher, wrote six books on this subject in his usual eloquent style and called the work The Six Days of Creation.
4. St. Augustine, a learned and meticulous controversialist, also wrote twelve books on the beginning of Genesis, which he invested with the beauty of virtually every kind of learning. He called the work Genesis Considered Word for Word. Although St. Basil and St. Ambrose gained universal praise for their brilliant treatment of the same material, nevertheless, Augustine, with God's bounty, advanced his work to yet another height—a difficult accomplishment after such learned men. He also wrote thirty-three books against Faustus the Manichean in which he vanquishes Faustus' wicked false belief by clear reasoning and again discussed in a marvelous way the Book of Genesis. Likewise in Against the Enemy of the Law and the Prophets, a work in two books, he unravelled many problems involving questions of divine law. He burned with such fierce piety against these men that he wrote more intensively and more vigorously against them than he argued against other heresies. In the final three books of his Confessions he also presents an explanation of Genesis and thus he revealed the depth of a subject which he treated repeatedly in his commentaries. In seven books he employed useful logical proofs to explain problems in the sacred books which are obscure and difficult. This excellent teacher and man of incisive mind strove to leave nothing which is granted for the salvation of souls ignored through fatal oversight. He also wrote seven other marvelous books on the types of speech in which he set down the figures of secular letters and many other expressions proper to Sacred Scripture (i.e., which are not in common usage) with the thought that the soul of the reader should not be disturbed and puzzled by any difficulties when it finds novelties in the style. At the same time this outstanding teacher also showed that the common expressions, i.e., the figures of speech of the grammarians and rhetoricians, arose from Scripture and still Scripture retains a unique quality which up to now no secular teacher has been able to imitate. He is also said to have written seven sermons on the seven days of Genesis. We are eagerly and diligently seeking and passionately hope to find a copy of them.
5. St. Ambrose also wrote seven books on the patriarchs which disentangle passages of the Old Testament by the happy device of set problems.
6. St. Jerome, too, in one volume on the Book of Genesis settled many points raised on matters of Hebrew which pass down through the Divine Scriptures of both Testaments like a line drawn by one pen with balanced perfection. Catholics must read through these works because the text is clear and intelligible when these great problems have been resolved. To increase our understanding he also compiled a one volume work that explains Hebrew names and places found in the authority of older books adding on his own Latin translations. This industrious teacher also wrote another book on the New Testament which disentangles problems in Old Testament law.
7. We ought also to read St. Prosper eagerly for he has encompassed three books of the entire divine authority in 153 chapters which are like the fish the nets of the apostles drew from the stormy depths of this world (John 21:11).
8. There are also eloquent sermons of Origen on the Octateuch in three books. He is a man whom the opinion of many Fathers marks as a heretic, but St. Jerome translated some of his short works into elegant Latin. Besides the attacks on him by the authority of so many Fathers, he has been condemned again recently by blessed Vigilius, Pope of Rome. Theophilus, bishop of Alexandria, has proved on the basis of Catholic doctrine that thirty-five opinions of Origen are distorted by heretical errors. Epiphanius of Cyprus, bishop of the Church of Salamis, also attacked Origen with great hostility. By virtue of his episcopal authority, Epiphanius sadly showed that Origen's statements were all the more prejudicial because of his perverse cleverness. But St. Jerome in a praiseworthy way has shown in a letter written to Tranquillinus how Origen is to be read. He would not prevent learned men from reading indispensable sections of his work, nor yet hurl the unwary to ruin. Some have properly said that Origen ought to be treated like anise; for after he seasons the food of sacred literature, he himself is to be cooked, extracted, and thrown away. It is said of him "where he writes well, no one writes better; where he writes badly, no one writes worse." We must read him cautiously and judiciously to draw the healthful juices from him while avoiding the poisons of his perverted faith which are dangerous to our way of life. The comment Vergil made while he was reading Ennius is applicable also to Origen. When asked by someone what he was doing Vergil replied, "I am looking for gold in a dung-heap." And so, as often as I could in my reading of the works of Origen, I marked the passages which contained statements against the rules of the Fathers with the sign of rejection, the achresimon . With such a mark on his perverted opinions he cannot deceive those who must be warned. Later writers say that he should be shunned completely because he subtly deceives the innocent. But if, with the Lord's help, we take proper precaution, his poison can do no harm.
9. I have also left you, with the Lord's help, if you want to read them, some sermons of Origen: sixteen on Genesis, twelve on Exodus, sixteen on Leviticus, twenty-nine on Numbers, four on Deuteronomy which contain a careful and subtle commentary, twenty-six on Joshua, and nine on Judges. But when I was not able to find older commentaries on Ruth, I persuaded the priest Bellator, a very religious man, to write a new one. In two books he has done much honor to the remarkable qualities of this woman and of other women after her. I have added these books to the commentaries of Origen as was appropriate so that the interpretation of the whole volume of the Octateuch might be full and complete.
10. To make the text of the Octateuch available to us in a summarized version, we thought that the chapter-headings taken from the entire sequence of readings should be set down at the beginning of each book, chapter-headings which had been written by our ancestors in the text as running heads. The reader might thus be usefully guided and made profitably attentive, for he will easily find that everything he is looking for is briefly marked out for him.
II. Kings
1. Since I could not find a commentary on the whole text of the second part, that of Kings, I have woven together some fragments from learned men into a single garment as it were, so that what could not be found in a single body of text can be known piece by piece in a unified collection.
2. I did indeed find four sermons on I Kings by Origen.
3. Blessed Augustine, writing to Simplicianus, bishop of Milan, on this book, solved six problems which had been set to him:
1) On the passage in which it says: "And an evil spirit from the Lord troubled Saul" (I Kings 16:14);
2) What is the meaning of "It repenteth me that I have made Saul king" (I Kings 15:11);
3) Whether the unclean spirit which was in the witch could have made Samuel visible to Saul so that he might speak with him (I Kings 28:7);
4) On II Kings, where it says: "And David went in, and sat before the Lord" (II Kings 7:18);
5) On III Kings, that Elijah says: "O Lord my God, has thou afflicted the widow, with whom I am after a sort maintained, so as to kill her son?" (III Kings 17:20);
6) In the same book, on the lying spirit by whom King Achab was deceived (III Kings 22:21).4. We have found on the second book St. Augustine's one sermon on Absalom who, because he coveted the kingdom, decided to kill his father David.
5. On the same work I have found three celebrated discussions of blessed Augustine of which the first in importance is:
1) That on I Kings, the passage in which David fights with Goliath (I Kings 17);
2) On III Kings, the passage on Elijah and the widow of Sarephta (III Kings 17:10.);
3) IV Kings, the passage in which Elisha blessed the deadly spring (IV Kings 2:19).6. And blessed Jerome writing to Abundantius discussed three other difficult problems:
1) Why did David, who voluntarily went to attack Saul along with Achis the King of the Allophyli, slay the man who afterwards announced to him the death of same Saul (II Kings 1);
2) Why did David, as he was dying, order his son Solomon to kill Joab, the general of his army (III Kings 2:5);
3) On Semei who shouted unbearable and injurious curses on the fleeing David and threw stones at him (II Kings 16:5).7. I have likewise discovered one sermon of Origen on the second book of the same work.
8. On the third book of the above-mentioned work, St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan, has a sermon on the Judgment of Solomon (III Kings 3:16); St. Jerome, too, spoke on this passage in a pleasant commentary in his usual manner; on this also we have found that the learned St. Augustine published a sermon. We conclude that such a great miracle has been discussed by worthy writers.
9. In addition St. Jerome wrote concerning this book to bishop Vitalis about the problem that Solomon and Achaz are said to have begotten sons when they were in their eleventh year (IV Kings 16:2, 18:2), something not known to be common in nature.
10. St. Augustine in The City of God, Book 17, titulus 4 in his eloquent discussion of the period of the kings, among other things, elucidates the Canticle of Anna (Luke 2:36) line by line.
11. On II Paralipomenon we have found only one lengthy sermon of Origen.
12. I have collected all this material into one volume so that you may read, with the Lord's help, matters about these books in the place of separate commentaries. I have also added to this volume empty gatherings so that writings yet to be found on the above work may be added to the explanations mentioned above.
13. The above-mentioned two books of Paralipomenon, whose great utility is honored by the Fathers, are known to contain a brief but full list of historical events. Since I have not discovered older chapter-headings like the chapter-headings existing for the preceding books, I have, as I thought best, added them in an orderly fashion to each passage so that the quality of our devotion can be recognized whatever the humbleness of my style of writing.
III. Prophets
1. On the fifth section, that of the prophets, St. Jerome, the first to write notes for beginners and the young, commented suitably and briefly. I have left you these glosses in a volume of the Prophets in which these comments were recently added. The grape-cluster shapes of these glosses have been suitably entered in this codex so that the vineyard of the Lord might seem filled with a heavenly richness and to have produced the sweetest fruits. For the more experienced and those who are already strengthened by some meditation, St. Jerome produced other full and clear commentaries through the bounty of Christ the Lord. St. Jerome made the abstruse and shadowy statements of the prophets understandable by offering various translations and untying the knots of the obscure allegories. Thus the holy doctor revealed the great mystery of the Heavenly King to human understanding.
2. St. Jerome has marvelously expounded in eighteen books on Isaiah who "ought to be called not so much a prophet as an evangelist," because he clearly made reference to the mysteries of Christ and of the Church.
3. Origen, in forty-five sermons in Greek, has expounded Jeremiah who "wept over the destruction of his city in a four-fold alphabet"; and of those I have found fourteen in translation which I have left to you. St. Jerome is also said to have written a commentary in twenty books on Jeremiah of which we have been able to find only six but we are, with the Lord's aid, looking for the rest.
4. St. Jerome in fourteen books expounded Ezechiel whose style in Hebrew "is neither completely mannered nor yet simple." In addition he discussed Daniel in three books. Although Daniel is not considered by the Hebrews in the group of prophets, he was, nevertheless, counted among the writers of the Hagiographa.
5. The twelve remaining prophets, whom common usage calls the minor prophets because of the brevity of their books, have been expounded by St. Jerome in twenty books: three books on Osee, one book on Abdia, three books on Amos, one book on Joel, one book on Jonah, one book on Nahum, two books on Habacuc, one book on Sophonia, one book on Aggai, three books on Zacharia, two books on Michea, one book on Malachia. So that nothing may be left unclear about them, he has shown in his most beautiful way how their names are to be understood in Latin, by fashioning his own etymologies. Thus, the field of the Lord brought forth with the Lord's bounty spiritual fruits for us, a field ploughed, as it were, by some hard working hired men and watered by the dew of heaven.
6. It is said that St. Ambrose also wrote a commentary on the prophets in his usual sweet and eloquent style, but I have up to now been unable to find it. I leave it to you to seek after it zealously, so that an expanded discussion by scholars may instruct you fully and reward you with the salvation of your souls.
IV. Psalter
1. The third section containing the Psalter, which was the first commentary we worked on, has fourth place in the arrangement of Biblical books. Blessed Hilary, blessed Ambrose, and blessed Jerome have treated some of the psalms, but St. Augustine in a scholarly manner more fully treated all. Up to now I have collected two decades of Augustine's commentary with the Lord's help.
2. And in my usual way, borrowing from him, so to speak, light from light, I have written something about that book with the Lord's bounty. Consequently, the famous line of the bard of Mantua is truly fulfilled in my case, "and I cackle as a goose among the melodious swans" (Virgil, Ecl. 9.36). In this work I have not disturbed the psalm text under discussion by straying from the subject, but in place of glosses I have stated briefly on each passage what the nature of the text itself demands. If anyone perchance deigns to read this work after reading other such commentators he will understand (as the other Fathers also unassailably claimed) that Sacred Scripture is the source of what the teachers of secular letters afterwards transferred to their field. I have (if I am not mistaken) shown these facts as the passages brought them up to the best of my ability with the Lord's aid.
3. The short book of Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, which he sent to Marcellinus as a sweet refreshment after his illness ought to be read. It is called The Book of Psalms. In it he gives various kinds of advice and reveals the excellence of that work in an edifying discussion which comfortingly mentions the various misfortunes of mankind and their remedies. The Psalter appears like a heavenly sphere thick with twinkling stars and, so to speak, like a beautiful peacock which is adorned with round eyes and a rich and lovely variety of colors. The Psalter is indeed a paradise for souls, containing numberless fruits on which the human soul is sweetly fed and fattened.
4. I have decided that this entire corpus of Psalms ought to be put in three volumes of fifty Psalms each so that the triple number of the jubilee year might signify to you the gift of remission desired from the Holy Trinity. A single volume containing all the psalms might prove too difficult for some brothers. With the Lord's aid many may find a shortened form of the book beneficial to their salvation and may receive the hope of precious salvation when the work is divided in such a way. Have in your library then one book of all the Psalms for reference if perchance the text strikes you as erroneous. But the interest of the brothers may be served by the divided sections.
V. Solomon
1. The fourth section is that of Solomon whose first book is called Proverbs. Since this section is divided into four parts, I decided that something should be noted on these parts in the prologue to this section so that such summaries may briefly clarify the purpose of the work.
2. We have found Didymus' Greek commentary on this book carefully translated into Latin by our learned friend Epiphanius with God's aid. Didymus, though blind in the flesh, was, as Antony, the Father of Monks justly remarked, one who saw with prophetic light, since he had seen in his perceptive heart what he could not see with ordinary sight. For it is wonderful to tell how learned in the sciences and arts he was simply by hearing, since, deprived of carnal light, he was unable even to look at the shapes of the letters. This seemed to me almost impossible, I confess, when I read of it, except that there happened to come to us from Asia a man by the name of Eusebius who said that he had been blind since the age of five. His left eye had been hollowed out and the deep socket showed; the right sphere was obscured by a glassy appearance and turned in useless movements without the power of seeing. He had placed such great authors and such great books in the library of his memory that he laudably advised the reader in what part of the book a passage he had mentioned could be found. He kept in his mind all his teachings and elucidated them by the clearest commentary. He also advised us that the tabernacle and temple of the Lord was shaped like the celestial vault. I have placed suitable pictures of them, their proper contours carefully painted, in the Latin Bible pandect in the larger format. He also connected the great mysteries of the Lord with the matter of priestly dress and stated that nothing was placed on them without purpose or without carrying a beautiful symbol of something else. He also stated that Josephus, Origen, and Jerome had made the same point in their books. What more? He made the story of Didymus believable by his own example. Acting under his direction I also found many ancient books which were unknown in my circle. Yet he is still held in the error of the Novatianist heresy. With the support of the mercy of the Lord we believe that he will be filled with the light of the true faith so that the one who enabled him to learn his scriptures by ear may bid him to become strong in the wholeness of the Catholic faith.
3. And the second book of Solomon which is called Ecclesiastes was vigorously commented on by the blessed Jerome. He is called the "Preacher" in Latin because he speaks to the people, and his discussion is directed not to anyone in particular, but to all in general. Our Ecclesiastes is the Lord Christ "he it is who has made both one and has broken down the intervening wall of the enclosure, the enmity in his flesh" (Ephesians 2:14). He says that the divine commandments are to be followed above all, warning that all the things of this world are the "vanity of the vain" (Ecclesiastes 1:2). Victorinus, first a rhetorician and then a bishop, wrote not a little on this book.
4. St. Jerome, who enriched the Latin language remarkably, also attended to our interests by his usual admirable translation of the two sermons of Origen on the Canticle of Canticles. And this Rufinus, too, an eloquent translator, expounded more fully in three books by adding some sections up to that precept "Catch us the foxes, the little foxes that damage the vineyards" (Canticle of Canticles 2:15). After those men, Epiphanius, bishop of Cyprus, treated the whole book in one brief volume in Greek. We have had this book and others translated into Latin with the Lord's aid by our learned friend Epiphanius. I have, therefore, included these most careful commentators on this book in a single volume to offer the reader all extant writers on this work in one place. St. Ambrose in the third book of his Patriarchs discusses extensively the figure of Isaac in a beneficial and lucid way.
5. Father Jerome also claimed that the Book of Wisdom is not by Solomon as is commonly believed, but was written by a certain learned Jew named Philo. He designates this book as a pseudepigraph because it usurps the name of another. The priest Bellator stated that he himself undertook a commentary on this volume in eight books and we keep this work together with his other shorter works. Father Augustine and St. Ambrose have written not a little in the form of sermons: it is a most sweet text which truly reflects the worthiness of its name.
6. St. Jerome also relates that the Book of Ecclesiasticus was written by Jesus son of Sirach who is called in Latin the "Assembler." The Fathers have differentiated Ecclesiastes and Ecclesiasticus by stating that Ecclesiastes alone refers to Christ the Lord while Ecclesiasticus can be applied completely to any just preacher who generally gathers in the Church of the Lord by his most holy admonitions. Clearly this is the effect of this present book which Jerome called panaretus ("all-virtuous," i.e., filled with all the virtues) and the Latin is so clear that the text seems to be a commentary on itself. May it be fulfilled in the nature of our actions as easily as it is quickly grasped by our mind.
7. With the Lord's aid we have taken care to mark chapter headings on these books so that in such indispensable reading, as we have often said, the inexperienced beginner may not be left in confusion.
VI. Hagiographa
1. The sixth section, that of the Hagiographa follows. It has eight books, containing first Job, an outstanding and glorious model of patience. As in many other cases, the labor of blessed Jerome has given the Latin language a careful translation and commentary. Thus in Jerome's commentaries we learn that, as the Lord himself deigned to bear witness of him, all Job's complaints were blameless (Job 42:7).
2. How many sweet verbal mysteries that book contains! As blessed Jerome says in the epistle he wrote to Paulinus: "Job begins in prose, slips into verse, ends in unmetrical language, and fixes everything by the laws of dialectic in major and minor premise, corroboration, and conclusion." But if this is true—and it must be as the authority of so great a man sets it down—where are those who say that the art of dialectic did not begin from most Holy Scripture? "Individual words in it are filled with allegories, with enigmas, and with holy problems, and, to pass over everything else in silence, the book foretells the resurrection of the flesh so well that no one seems to have written anything on this subject more clearly or more carefully. For thus it says: 'I know that my Vindicator lives, and that he will stand forth upon the dust whom I myself shall see, and not another—and from my flesh I shall see God; this my hope is placed in my bosom.'" (Job 19:25-27).
3. St. Augustine also glossing the same book treated it with his usual care for knowledge. There is a chapter-by-chapter commentary on this book by an anonymous author whose style leads us to believe that it is the work of blessed Hilary. If you read it attentively it can instruct you carefully. Clearly the Book of Job is a magnificent book written for the solace and benefit of the human race since it shows a holy man enduring such great sufferings that each sinner makes light of the sufferings he himself experiences.
4. The priest Bellator to the best of his ability composed in Latin commentaries on the following: Tobit, five books; Esther, six books; Judith, seven books; Maccabees, ten books.
5. I have collected the chapter summaries of these books since I think that the summary is equally a form of instruction and concentrates in a few words information spread widely throughout the books. When the mind of the reader has been instructed by these aids, it is stimulated and has beneficial recourse to the order of scriptures. Nevertheless, recognize that these books, although they are historical and are based on a clear narration have been written with regard to the most excellent moral virtues to fill our minds properly with patience, hope, charity, and (even for women) courage. They also, place in our minds a present life scorned for God and inform us of the kinds of virtues which have flourished in those works with the Lord's grace.
6. I have found Origen's single expository sermons in Greek on the two books of Esdras, which have been translated by that devout man Bellator. St. Ambrose in The Patriarchs, where he speaks of Joseph, cites the second book of Maccabees as an example. He has interpreted by the sweet clearness of his eloquence the greatest part of this book as praise of the virtue of tolerance. With the Lord's aid, our friend Bellator has put together a painstaking commentary on the Books of the Maccabees to provide a commentary for such a great text filled with so many examples of manly behavior.
VII. The Gospels
1. The seventh section of Divine Scripture, the first of the New Testament, which gives us the holy beginning and active aid, shines with the heavenly light of the four evangelists. St. Jerome who investigated what is what is peculiar to each, has discussed these books with great attention and has included this in one volume so that the reader's attention might not be distracted by separate volumes. St. Jerome again commented on Matthew in four books, and St. Hilary also discussed it in one book. Victorinus, too, who became a bishop after being a rhetorician, has written not a little on it. St. Ambrose marvelously expounded Luke. Blessed Augustine elucidated John in a full and outstanding commentary. He also assembled four books The Agreement of the Evangelists with a careful and critical discussion.
2. Eusebius of Caesarea also collected the Gospel canons in a brief summary. He has accurately distinguished those passages in which the evangelists report the same things from those in which they discuss matters peculiar to themselves. In his work the fullness of faith is great, so likewise does the marvelous teaching of the different evangelists thrive.
VIII. Apostolic Letters
1. The eighth section contains the canonical epistles of the Apostles. I found, at the beginnings of my reading, glosses written on the thirteen epistles which are so widely known that learned men have in their enthusiasm said that they were written by St. Gelasius, the pope of Rome. This sort of thing often happens when men wish to protect faulty material by the authority of an illustrious name. After our earlier reading, careful reconsideration showed us that these writings display subtle concise language, but that the poison of the Pelagian error is sowed in them; therefore, to keep this heretical error far from you I have revised the first epistle (to the Romans) with every possible care and I have left the rest written down in a papyrus book to be emended by you. This will be an easy matter since my example sets a precedent for outright imitation.
2. Deeply distressed amidst these troubles I found an anonymous annotated codex given to us by divine foresight which offers valuable glosses to the thirteen epistles of St. Paul. This book, if gone through carefully, will give you a second safe commentary with the Lord's bounty.
3. We have had Mutianus, a learned man, translate from Greek into Latin the thirty-four sermons of John, bishop of Constantinople, on the Epistle to the Hebrews so that the entire sequence of the letters would not be broken off suddenly by a clumsy conclusion.
4. On the canonical epistles Clement of Alexandria, a priest (also called Stromateus), has written some things in Greek—i.e., on I Peter, on I and II John, and on James. In these works he discusses many subjects carefully but others carelessly. We have had these translated into Latin and cleaned up by the removal of some of their errors, so that his teaching can be drawn on more safely.
5. St. Augustine also treated the letter of the apostle James with his usual meticulous diligence. I have left a copy of this to you in a parchment book.
6. When deep concern about the remaining canonical epistles was troubling us, we suddenly obtained by the bounty of the Lord a copy of Didymus, written in Greek containing a commentary on the seven canonical epistles. This has been translated with divine aid by the scholar Epiphanius.
7. St. Augustine has written much wonderful material on love in the ten sermons on I John.
8. I have found a third copy of the letters of St. Paul which some say contains brief glosses of St. Jerome and I have also left this to you through the bounty of Christ.
9. After these three commentaries of equal value which I have spoken about, I mention Peter, the abbot of the province of Tripolis, who is said to have annotated the epistles of St. Paul with examples from the short works of the blessed Augustine. He declares the secret of his own heart with the tongue of another and he has fitted these examples so suitably to individual passages that you might think that the whole had been accomplished rather by the effort of blessed Augustine. For it is remarkable that one author has elucidated the text from another commentator in such a way that he seems to have expressed the desires of his own heart without using his own words. This, among other books, is to be sent to you, if Divine Grace so grants, from the region of Africa.
10. The whole arrangement of the canonical epistles, those of St. Paul and of the other apostles, under the guidance of the Lord, has been completed in this way. It is reported also that blessed Ambrose left an annotated version of all the epistles of St. Paul filled with his own satisfying commentary; up to now, however, I have not been able to find this work but I am looking for it assiduously.
11. We have spoken about the brief glosses on the Epistles which some have written. Now following our usual order, as we did for the Prophets, let us speak of those who preferred to treat of these letters generally. Thus the first works listed are suitable for beginners, what follows is designated for those who are trained.
12. The first of the letters of St. Paul and a rather remarkable one is the letter to the Romans. Origen discussed this letter in twenty books in Greek. Rufinus has reduced this work to ten books, and fully translated it into Latin. St. Augustine attempted to write a commentary on the same letter. He mentions that he had completed one book on the salutation alone and to use his words, "frightened by the greatness of the work itself and by the toil, [he] turned to other easier tasks." In writing to Simplicianus, bishop of Milan, he also dealt with some of the lofty and remarkable problems of the same epistle. We have decided to insert his discussion in the book I just spoke of (viz. Origen-Rufinus) so that the reader trying to find another commentary will not experience unprofitable delays.
13. St. Augustine also interpreted the letter to the Galatians more broadly and St. Jerome extended his commentary on it to three books. St. Jerome also carefully explained the letter to the Ephesians in three other books. He included in one volume a commentary on Titus and he also explained Philemon in one book.
14. St. Jerome is said to have written commentaries on the rest of the epistles of St. Paul—i.e., on I and II Corinthians, on I and II Thessalonians, on Colossians, and on I and II Timothy; from them a great deal of knowledge can be gained since it is helpful for the ignorant to learn what they are seeking. We trust that by the mercy of the Lord we will shortly locate these commentaries of Jerome in the various regions where we have directed inquiry. Thus we ought to preserve carefully what we know has been handed down to us; and so, if any of you come on them by chance before they arrive here, take care to have them carefully transcribed and added to the aforesaid commentators. In this way, the library of your monastery will profit with the Lord's aid and by your efforts; by his and your efforts great results have come about. But if before this work is completed, my old age passes on, at the order of the Lord, to the desired end, with remission of my sins (for which I ask that you pray), some time in the future this material which we await will come to you as I believe.
15. I have left the commentary of John Chrysostom on the above-mentioned epistles in Greek in the eighth bookcase I spoke of which houses the Greek books. If fuller Latin commentaries cannot be found, translate from this commentary what can offer the fullest knowledge. In this way all seventy-one canonical books (the number understood by the holy Father Augustine) may have commentaries of the earlier writers through the Lord's bounty, and there, like the spiritual fruits of Paradise, may be offered for enjoyment at your banquets.
16. But if on these matters I have spoken of, some passages should be left in doubt and these doubts cannot be answered by full commentaries, I do not at all forbid you the use of later commentators. You should, however, look carefully for Catholic commentators, since in the passage of time the divine grace which may have been hidden from the earlier teachers, has recently been bestowed on many.
IX. Acts of the Apostles and the Apocalypse
1. Next comes the ninth section which contains the Acts of the Apostles and the Apocalypse. The Apocalypse, i.e. Revelation, is also said to be the work of the apostle John. We have found commentaries in Greek on the Acts of the Apostles by John, bishop of Constantinople. Our friends, with the Lord's aid, have translated these in two volumes of fifty-five sermons.
2. The Apocalypse, which assiduously leads the reader to heavenly contemplation, causes him to understand through the mind's eye what makes the angels blessed through actual sight; it becomes clear in the commentary of St. Jerome. Victorinus, the oft-mentioned bishop, has briefly treated some difficult passages of this book also. Vigilius, an African bishop, also discussed fully and carefully the sense of the thousand years which is mentioned in the Apocalypse and which is a great problem for some.
3. Tyconius the Donatist also added some unobjectionable material on this book, but he contaminated it with the foul teachings of his poisonous belief; where appropriate I have affixed the chresimon ("useful") on the approved statements and on all unacceptable statements I found in reading through it, I have fixed the mark of disapproval, the achriston. We urge you to do likewise on suspect commentators so that the reader will not be bewildered by the admixture of unacceptable teachings.
4. St. Augustine in his City of God also elucidated many matters concerning this book in an outstanding and careful manner. In our time also, the blessed Primasius, bishop of Africa, has commented on the Apocalypse in five books with minute and diligent attention. To these he added one book of careful discussion called What Makes a Heretic. Let these books be offered in the temple of the Lord as holy offerings on the sacred altars.
5. But since we have spoken of the commentators—as many of the earlier ones as we could find or those we have had translated by our friends from the Greek or composed in the new tongue—let us now say something about the six types of understanding that enable us to avoid mortal errors more easily by reference to them.
X. On the Types of Understanding
1. Having read the teachings of this work, let us first turn our attention to an examination of introductory manuals to Divine Scripture by authors, whom we found afterwards, i.e., Tyconius the Donatist, St. Augustine On Christian Learning, Adrian, Eucherius, and Junillus. I have acquired their works with great care, and have united and gathered into one collection those which have a similar purpose. By arranging the rules of usage to elucidate the text, and by comparisons of various examples, they have clarified what was hitherto obscure.
2. But if writers of introductory works have ignored these subjects, let us seek carefully for commentators on the books to reveal to us insights that were hitherto obscure.
3. Then let us read assiduously the Catholic teachers who have solved the most difficult problems by enumerating proofs.
4. Fifth, specific passages mentioned as illustrations in the individual books and letters of the different Fathers ought to be noted with great care. This method offers the most useful approach possible to reading the different Catholic Fathers since they make a great deal of knowledge available to us by their discussion of problems incidental to their main subjects.
5. Finally, seek frequent discussion with learned elders; for in conversation with them we suddenly realize what we had not even imagined while they transmit eagerly to us the knowledge they have gained in their long years. It is useful to go through these six types of learning eagerly and willingly rather than grow dull in irreligious torpor.
XI. The Four Accepted Councils
1. Let us explain now how the universal and holy councils have established the saving mysteries of our faith so that we may avoid deadly errors by learning from them the hidden truths of our religion. We read that the Council of Nicaea was the first convened, then the Council of Constantinople, third Ephesus I, fourth, Chalcedon. These are the councils which the Holy Church approves with good reason. These Councils brought such great illumination to our faith that we, in our intellectual blindness, ought not to crash against the rocks of any heresy, as long as we are guarded by the care of the Lord. At those councils the most holy fathers, defending the truth faith from injury, preferred to establish ecclesiastical rules and to strike down the stubborn inventors of new heresies with the divine sword. They decided that no one on his own ought to introduce new problems, but should rest content with the authority of the approved elders and obey without malice or treachery the decrees promoting our spiritual well-being. For there are many who think that it is praiseworthy to hold opinions contrary to those of the ancients or to discover some new thing by which they may appear learned.
2. The Codex Encyclius bears witness to the Council of Chalcedon and praises the reverence of that council so highly that it judges that the council ought to be compared to sacred authority. We have had the complete collection of letters translated by the erudite scholar Epiphanius from Greek into Latin.
3. But now that we have collected the sacred documents, as given with the Lord's help in nine codices together with the introductory writers and with almost all Latin commentators, let us see (with the Lord's aid) how holy law has been divided in three different ways by the different Fathers. The Church of all regions accepts this law as a whole, nevertheless, in a respectful and harmonious way.
XII. The Division of Sacred Scripture According to St. Jerome
1. The divine authority in two Testaments is divided according to St. Jerome as follows:
In the Old Testament:
The Law: Genesis; Exodus; Leviticus; Numbers; Deuteronomy.
Prophets: Josue; Judges; Ruth; Samuel; Isaia; Jeremia; Ezechiel; Books of Twelve Prophets.
Hagiographa: Job; David; Solomon; Proverbs; Ecclesiasticus; Canticle of Canticles; Chronicles (i.e. Paralipomenon); Esdras; Esther.In the New Testament:
Gospels: Matthew; Mark; Luke; John.
Apostolic Letters: Paul (14); Peter (2); John (3); James (1); Jude (1).
Acts of the Apostles.
One book on the Apocalypse.2. It must be clearly understood that St. Jerome edited and corrected the works of different translators because he saw that they did not at all agree with the Hebrew authority. As a result he finally translated all the books of the Old Testament with scrupulous care from Hebrew into Latin and properly arranged them according to the twenty-two letters that stand in the Hebrew, letters through which all wisdom is learned and the memory of what was said has been preserved forever in written form. There are in addition twenty-seven books of the New Testament. Taking both Testaments together the total is forty-nine. Add to this sum the omnipotent and indivisible Trinity (through which these deeds were done and on account of which those prophecies were uttered), and, indeed, you have the number fifty: like the jubilee year the total cancels debts by the great goodness of its benefit and takes away the sins of those who are truly penitent.
3. Because of the large amount of text we have decided that this full volume of the Latin Bible ought to be written in a rather small script in fifty-three gatherings of six folios each so that the close density of the writing might bring within a short compass the fullness of the text.
4. We ought to recall that Jerome arranged his translation of the entire divine authority (as he himself bears witness) for the simple brothers into cola and commata so that those who have difficulty in understanding the punctuation of sacred letters might, thus assisted, pronounce the holy text without error.
XIII. The Division of Divine Scripture According to St. Augustine
1. Divine Scripture according to St. Augustine is divided into two Testaments, i.e. the Old and the New.
The Old Testament:
History in 22 books: Books of Moses (5); Josue (1); Judges (1); Ruth (1); Kings (4); Paralipomenon (2); Job (1); Tobias (1); Esther (1); Judith (1); Esdras (1); Maccabees (2).
Prophets in 22 books: Psalter of David (1); Solomon (3); Sirach (2); Major Prophets (4) (i.e., Isaia, Jeremia, Daniel, Ezechiel); and Minor Prophets (12) (i.e., Osee, Joel, Amos, Abdia, Jona, Michea, Nahum, Habacuc, Sophonia, Zacharia, Aggai, Malachia).
The New Testament:
Gospels in 4 books (i.e., according to Matthew, Mark, Luke, John).
21 Apostolic Letters: of Paul: Romans (1); Corinthians (2); Galatians (1); Ephesians (1); Philippians (1); Thessalonians (2); Colossians (1); Timothy (2); Titus (1); Philemon (1); Hebrews (1); of Peter (2); of John (3); of Jude (1); of James (1).
Acts of the Apostles (1).
On the Apocalypse (1).2. In On Christian Learning St. Augustine, therefore, using the arrangement of the above-mentioned nine sections which the holy Church devised, arranged the Divine Scriptures into seventy-one books. And when you have added the unity of the holy Trinity to this number, there is a satisfactory and glorious completeness to the whole.
XIV. The Division of Holy Scripture According to the Septuagint
1. The Holy Scripture according to the ancient translation is divided into two Testaments.
In the Old Testament:
Genesis; Exodus; Leviticus; Numbers; Deuteronomy; Josue; Judges; Ruth; Kings (in 4 books); Chronicles (in 2 books); Psalter (in 5 books); Solomon (in 5 books: Proverbs, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Ecclesiastes, Canticle of Canticles).
Prophets: Isaia; Jeremia; Ezechiel; Daniel; Osee; Amos; Michea; Joel; Abdia; Jona; Nahum; Habacuc; Sophonia; Aggai; Zacharia; Malachia (which is also the Messenger); Job; Tobias; Esther; Judith; Esdras (in 2 books); Maccabees (in 2 books).In the New Testament:
4 Gospels: Matthew; Mark; Luke; John.
Acts of the Apostles.
Epistles of Peter to the nations.
Epistle of James.
Epistles of John to the Parthians.
Epistles of Paul: to the Romans (1); to the Corinthians (2); to the Galatians (1); to the Philippians (1); to the Colossians (1); to the Ephesians (1); to the Thessalonians (2); to Timothy (2); to Titus (2); to Philemon (1).
Apocalypse of John.2. This third division stands among the others in the larger volume written in a clearer script. It has ninety-five gatherings of four folios each in which the translation of the Old Testament by the seventy interpreters is included in forty-four books; to this are added the twenty-six books of the New Testament and the total comes out all together as seventy books, symbolizing perhaps by this number the palm trees which the Hebrew people found at the resting place of Elim (Exodus 15:27).
3. The text is varied in the many translations (as Father Jerome stated in the prologue of the Psalter) which he left carefully emended and arranged, and we have judged that all three types of divisions ought to be attached to this work so that when these types are carefully treated they seem not to disagree but rather explain one another. As a result, although many Fathers—St. Hilary, bishop of Poitiers, and Rufinus, a priest of Aquileia, and Epiphanius, bishop of Cyprus, and the Councils of Nicaea and Chalcedon—have said things not contradictory to one another but only different, all have, nevertheless, by their divisions, fitted the sacred books to the appropriate mysteries, as also happens in the harmonies of the Gospels where we regard the events with one faith although they differ in the way they are told.
4. But since Father Augustine in the second book of Christian Learning gives the following advice, "the Latin copies, i.e., of the Old and the New Testament, if there is need, should be corrected by the authority of the Greek from which all translations have reached us after the Hebrew source," so I have left you also a complete Greek Bible in seventy-five books which contains . . . [number] of gatherings of four folios each in the previously mentioned eighth bookcase where I have systematically collected the various short works of other Greek writers. In this way nothing that is essential to your instruction in sacred matters will be missing. And this number is made holy by two miracles: for seventy-five souls entered the territory of the Egyptians from the land of Canaan with the patriarch Jacob (Genesis 46:27) and seventy-five were the years of Abraham when he happily received the promise of the Lord (Genesis 12:4).
5. Now it remains for us to say how we ought to correct scribal errors in Holy Scripture. What use is it to read through many texts and not to know what should properly be corrected in them?
XV. How Carefully the Heavenly Authority Ought to be Corrected
1. You, therefore, who have a good knowledge of divine and secular letters and the understanding to discover what is not in harmony with common usage, read through sacred literature in the following manner; for the few who are learned must prepare material for the simple and less educated community. Therefore, first read carefully and correct the errors of the writers in such a way that you do not deserve criticism for trying to correct others without due deliberation; this kind of correction is, in my opinion, the most beautiful and glorious task of learned men.
2. First, do not impudently tamper with the idioms of Divine Scripture lest you damage the purity of the heavenly works (God forbid!) when you try to bring the text into harmony with common understanding. There are peculiar turns of phrasing: idioms of divine law which do not occur in common usage, such as:
"according to the innocence of my hands" (Psalms 17:21, 25)
"let my judgment come from your face" (Psalms 16:2)
"to my tears be not deaf" (Psalms 38:13)
"pour out your hearts before him" (Psalms 61:9)
"my soul clings fast after you" (Psalms 62:9)
"you have multiplied to enrich it" (Psalms 64:10)
"there we shall rejoice in that very thing" (Psalms 65:6)
"he poured from this into this" (Psalms 74:9)
"he sent Moses his servant; and Aaron whom he had chosen" (Psalms 104:26)
"my eyes have failed towards your praise" (Psalms 118:82)
"let your hand be to save me." (Psalms 118:173).These and similar expressions are numerous, although common usage avoids them. Nevertheless one must not efface them, as that authority which is certainly sacred approves them. But if you desire to understand these matters more fully, read the St. Augustine's seven books on the Types of Speech, which he wrote on the five books of Moses, on Josue, and on Judges, and then you shall be fully satisfied on this subject. You have the opportunity to find afterwards in the scriptural authority many similar examples.
3. Do not alter certain Hebrew names of individuals and places by declining them; let the pleasing simplicity of their language be preserved. Let us change only those letters that can express the case of the word itself, since the interpretation of the name of each of these is tied to a great mystery of some sort, as Seth, Enoch, Lamech, Noe, Sem, Ham, Jafeth, Aaron, David, and the like. Let us treat with the same respect the names of places such as Sion, Choreb, Goen, Hermon, and the like.
4. Thirdly, words that are used in a good and bad sense must not be tampered with at all, like mountain, lion, cedar, lion's cub, shout, man, fruit, cup, calf, shepherd, treasure, worm, dog, and the like. And those terms which are set down in place of other words also must not be changed. For example:
Satan who departs from the straight path—Let us hope that the commentators will explain these terms to us;
to wash one's hands means not to take part in—
that feet are set down for the act—
that often expectation is used for hope—
once expresses an unchangeable decision—
to swear by God is stated instead of to assert.
let us not mangle any of them with impious intent.
5. Do not alter those words which from time to time appear to be set down contrary to the human art of grammar, but which are defended by the authority of many manuscripts, since words spoken under the inspiration of the Lord cannot be corrupt. For example:
"we have not forgotten you" (Psalm 43:18)
"men of blood and deceit" (Psalms 54:24)
"the foundation of the temple was laid" (Zacharias 8:9)
"he shall shave his head" (Numbers 6:9)
"she will swell in her belly" for "her belly will swell" (Numbers 5:27)
"if a man's wife goes astray" (Numbers 5:12)
"on this altar they shall put all the utensils with which it is served on them" (Number 4:14)
"the country in which they live in it" (Numbers 13:19)
"so they spread discouraging reports among the Israelites about the land they had scouted" (Numbers 13:33)
"my loneliness from the hand of the dog" (Psalms 21:21)
"the rivers shall clap their hands in them" (Psalms 97:8)
"then shall all the trees of the forest exult." (Psalms 95:12).6. And since sometimes the cases and genders of nouns and verbs cannot fit human rules, and yet by agreement the Church accepts their usage, let the authority of two or three old and corrected codices copies be sought—for it is written, "a judicial fact shall be established only on the testimony of two or three witnesses," (Deuteronomy 19:15 et al.) — and do not be bold on a matter supported by divine language as in Psalm 21, "to a people yet to be born whom he has made," (Psalms 21:32) and the following from the Gospel, "go, therefore, and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit," (Matthew 28:19) and likewise in Psalm 143, "happy the people whose God is the Lord," (Psalm 143:15) and the like.
7. Do not, therefore, completely follow the rules of Latin idioms, i.e. the Quadriga of Messius, when you are convinced by the authority of old books; for sometimes it is right to pass over the rules of human composition and instead to keep the arrangement of divine speech. In prose do not correct what begins or ends in dactyls; do not presume to disapprove of five longs or as many short syllables; let a praiseworthy oversight hide a triple trochee. Disregard the omissions of final -m and the hiatus of vowels completely, since the rules that the teachers of liberal letters regularly observe do not have a place in these texts. In human composition it is proper to guard against this; in divine speech such spellings are in no way to be criticized. Let an expression which has pleased God stand untouched everywhere so that it may shine in its own brightness and not be subject to capricious human criticism. For this kind of expression sweetly teaches even the simple and delights the learned in accordance with the extent of their reverence.
8. After the division above, therefore, where we said that idioms (or other matters which logically follow) of divine law are not to be altered, at this point in the discussion it seems essential for me to lay out this subdivision in the traditional manner so that we may see our way more clearly to the subsections. For how could Aristotle, that learned man, have been able to make clear his On Interpretation if he had not treated everything in an arrangement of divisions and subdivisions and further subdivisions? Therefore, following his example, we shall speak of the letters in which the scribes' errors are to be corrected.
9. In words that are governed by a preposition taking the accusative and ablative, distinguish carefully rest and motion since scribes who do not know the art of grammar are particularly prone to make mistakes here; for if you add or subtract the letter -m improperly, the sense is completely disturbed. Observe carefully the cases of nouns (except for indeclinable ones) and the conjugation of verbs which are not defective, and all the parts of speech—where sacred authority does not oppose—consider carefully and keep items fitted in their proper locations, that an ugly muddle does not take over completely (God forbid!) when the idiomatic arrangement is thrown into confusion. Do not leave -b for -v, -v for -b, -o for -u, -n for -m, when these letters have been set down incorrectly contrary to the rules of proper spelling; take away a superfluous aspirate or when suitable add one. Carefully keep the cases of nouns and the tenses of verbs where you are allowed to; for you will often find forms in the authority that do not agree with common usage, and these you are not allowed to alter. In these follow the example of the emended copies. But correct others that are poorly conceived. Scribes in such cases cause damage when they do not know how to keep in a regular way to the idiom of the Latin language. Do not leave -a in the ending of an adverb; but do not take -a from the genitive case. We do well to change many forms also in respect of euphony because of the letters which follow, such as illuminatio, irrisio, immutabilis, impius, improbus. Take away superfluous -r from narratio; for the form of this word comes from gnarus, i.e. learned or skilled. Write quod when it is a pronoun, with -d and not -t; but when it is a numeral adverb, it must be written with -t not -d. Quicquam — -c ought to be placed in the first syllable rather than -d for the sake of euphony, which we are advised to follow. What more? Look over what is to be corrected according to the rules of writers on this art, to prevent the lovely harmony of the spoken word from becoming ugly and discordant by the addition of letters that do not belong.
10. Frequently reread the old writers on proper spelling. In Chapter 30 below, in which scribes are discussed, I have indicated which works ought to be excerpted as useful for instructing the scribes. Moreover I have given the title Proper Spelling to this book separately. Thus it is of value for the scholar to read this book here, to learn what he must not violate at all in Sacred Scripture and that book in which he can find a fuller discussion of hasty errors which should be universally corrected.
11. If, nevertheless, some words which make no sense have been set down, they must be courageously corrected either from those books which blessed Jerome corrected in his edition of the Septuagint or those which he translated himself from the Hebrew; or, as blessed Augustine said, we should have recourse to the complete Greek Bible, in which is brought together the whole divine law; or, for scholars to whom this is possible, let them not turn away from consulting Hebrew writings or teachers of Hebrew, for it is only right that satisfactory correction come also from the source of our redemptive translation. For rightly our fathers took great care that the tunic of the Lord the Savior, which the fierce soldiers were not allowed to tear up (John 19:23-24), should not be left to the mercy of unskilled readers. Let the Holy Spirit hear in its most pure form what it has given, let it receive intact what it bestowed; then it knows that we are faithful to it as we do not tear its words apart with any preconceived opinion. For how do we expect to be saved if (unspeakable thought!) we, to gratify our own will, destroy the aid that brings salvation?
12. But so that we may add ornament to all this, place in each chapter the punctuation marks which the Greeks calls theseis, i.e., small round points—except for the translation of St. Jerome which he decided to mark by cola and commata (we have already spoken about this in the preface)—since they make the written text clear and bright when, as is explained below, they are fitted in their place and shine forth. How excellent it is to pass unhindered through holy thought and to enter subtly into the sound nature of its precepts; to set correctly one's own limits for a measured speech and to divide the whole composition in parts in such a way that it is beautiful when regarded in its sections! For if our body must be known through its limbs, why does it seem right to leave reading confused in its arrangement? These positurae, or points, indeed, like paths for mind and lights for the composition, make readers as teachable as if they were indoctrinated by the clearest commentators. The first is the colon, the second, the comma, the third, the period; these were invented by our ancestors to enable the voice tired out from long speaking to regain its strength in the marked pauses. If you, as an eager reader, would like to know them, read Donatus, who can accurately instruct you by his brief summary on this subject. We recall that we placed these punctuation marks in the archetype of the Psalter. With the Lord's support and such aids we have been able to elucidate obscure passages in the Psalter to a great extent.
13. The number seven is so complete on both sides that it is, to my mind, obvious and clear what changes we should refrain from and what corrections we should make with the aid of authority. But if, nevertheless, this desire to make corrections can also be aided in some other ways, let it be added to your pursuits so that we may not seem, in human fashion, to have ignored some indispensable matter.
14. Now I must discuss on what grounds we ought to emend other texts apart from authority. Let each corrector read the commentaries on divine law, the letters, the sermons, the works of our predecessors with the intention of making their corrections in accord with the teachers of secular letters. Wherever spelling errors are found in learned authors, he should fearlessly correct the errors, since the writers surely wrote their works so that they could be judged according to the rules of grammar that they had learned. Also, the letters of the Fathers, the sermons and the books on various subjects as well as homilies or disputes of the faithful with the heretics, since they reveal various passages of Divine Scripture sweetly and carefully, must be emended with great care so that the whole will shine forth brightly and brilliantly with the Lord's support in the Church of the Lord, as if some lamps were lighted. If their contents shed light on Divine Scripture do not hesitate to add them to the volumes of Divine Scripture just as we have done with the books of Kings. For scholars discover many fuller statements concerning these books by chance in commentaries on other books and these may be properly attached to the sacred authority. So I pray that you, through your greater reading both from those books that I have left and those which you will the good fortune to find, will fill in the gaps in Christ's name in what we have been able to explain on the basis of our limited reading.
15. I pray also that you who presume, nevertheless, to emend, make the letters you add so beautiful that they appear to have been written by the scribes. For it is wrong to find in that beauty anything foul which afterwards may shock the eyes of scholars. Consider, therefore, the sort of case entrusted to you, your service to Christians, the treasury of the Church, the enlightenment of souls. See carefully to it, therefore, that no error is left in the truth, no falseness in the purity, and no scribal mistakes in the corrected text.
16. First, with the Lord's aid, we have listed the nine volumes of the law and detailed the introductory writers with their commentaries as carefully as we could. Next we touched on the three divisions of the whole divine law which our ancestors have given us. Then we included a section on the rules covering emendation of texts of divine authority to prevent disruption as well as the transmission of troublesome confusion in the text to posterity because of excessive liberty with the text. Now we must discuss in all respects the excellence of divine reading so that each passage may abound in its own sweetness.
XVI. The Excellence of Divine Scripture
1. Note, excellent friends, how marvelously and how harmoniously the arrangement of words moves in Divine Scripture. There is an ever-increasing desire, a fullness without end, a glorious hunger of the blessed where excess is not reproved but constant desire is, instead, praised—and rightly so, since Scripture teaches beneficial knowledge and offers eternal life to those who believe and act on their belief. The words of Scripture describe the past without fiction and show the present as more than what it seems, and tell of the future as if it had already taken place. Truth rules everywhere in it; everywhere divine excellence shines forth; everywhere benefits to the human race are revealed. While the present situation exists on earth, heavenly truth, in so far as we are able to grasp it, is revealed by parables and mysteries, as God himself bears witness in the seventy-seventh Psalm: "I will open my mouth in a parable, I will utter mysteries from of old" (Psalms 77:2). For they pass on to us, in order that we may discharge all duties, a knowledge of the adored holy Trinity (which, over the great passage of time, humanity, blind, sad, and enslaved to idols, has not known). They tell us that the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, one God, creator and director of all created things does "all that he wills in heaven and on earth" (Psalms 134:6). If you seek its faithfulness, listen to the brief statement: "A stronghold for the oppressed in times of distress" (Psalms 9:10); if you seek power, hear: "Who can withstand you for the fury of your anger?" (Psalms 75:8; Wisdom 11:22); if justice, read: "He judges the world with justice" (Psalms 9:99 and 95:13). For Scripture declares most obviously that God is everywhere; in the words of the writers of the Psalms: "Where can I go from your spirit? from your presence where can I flee? If I go up to the heavens, you are there; if I sink to the nether world, you are present there" (Psalms 138:7-8). Scripture, furthermore, reveals other facets of that majesty that the holy writings contain.
2. Human reason indeed did not create these writings, but heavenly virtue anointed holy men; we are then granted understanding of these writings when in a spirit of dedication we believe that these works preach something true and beneficial. For what usefulness and sweetness will you not find in those writings, if you look with a clearly enlightened mind? The reading is full of virtues. No word falls idly (III Kings 8:56), nor is there any delay in the fulfillment of the promise, giving eternal salvation to those who obey and to inflict eternal punishment on the proud. We are advised not only to listen to the words, but to fulfill them in holy works. Sometimes Scripture speaks of the love of God and of our neighbor; sometimes it instructs us to despise the perishable things of this world. It inspires you to recall that land where you will remain forever; it advises patience, gives hope, and praises beneficial humility, always attacks a destructive pride and often persuades us to perform acts of compassionate charity. With a benevolence beyond all compassion, the Judge himself bears witness that he has accepted repentance since the most generous Redeemer forgives the words by which he is questioned; he frightens that he may correct; he threatens punishment that he may spare; and he orders us to live so that we deserve to be the companions of the loyal angels and that eternal sweetness be created in us "so that God may be all in all" (I Corinthians 15:28); then that "we may see him as he is" (I John 3:2), and thus we may be filled with the abundance of his glory and not worn out by any empty need. Who would not strive to obey such orders, except the man who is rushing in every way to eternal destruction? It is beyond all madness to neglect the commands of one's Redeemer and to fulfill the wish of our cruelest enemy. There are as many rewards as there are words; as many punishments as there are sentences. Useful teaching does not fail, unless the tongue fails to speak of mighty things. O, if the tongue would never cease from such teachings! Surely the opportunity for sin would disappear, if the restless minds of mortals had no idle time.
3. When these benefits have been granted by abundant kindness, we also receive knowledge of the adored and revered holy Trinity. This kind of life is completely unknown to the pagan who is dead because of his sins. It remains now to recall those who spoke reverently of the sacred Trinity in their books. To strengthen our faith, therefore, and to guard against the snares of the heretics, we should read blessed Hilary's profound and learned treatise on the holy Trinity in thirteen books. You ought to read carefully and contemplate the lucid and charming books which St. Ambrose composed and set down on this subject for the emperor Gratian; then St. Augustine's wonderfully profound work, The Trinity in fifteen books. If anyone chooses to touch on something in summary fashion concerning the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit and prefers not to be worn out by long reading, he should read the book which Bishop Nicetas wrote On the Faith. Filled thus with the illumination of heavenly doctrine, he will be led by the appropriate brevity into contemplation of the divine. These works are joined to the books of St. Ambrose which he sent to the emperor Gratian. O inestimable kindness and excellence of the creator! "The heavens are opened" (Matthew 3:16), the holy Trinity shines revealed to the hearts of the faithful; paganism which had taken on an office which did not belong to it was overturned by the true Lord and disappeared.
4. Useful also for the teaching of the ecclesiastical rule are the three honeyed books of St. Ambrose, Duties, as well as St. Augustine's one book The True Religion and the four books Christian Doctrine; his book The Christian Struggle is also indispensable to those of you who have overcome the world and labor in the Christian fight. Likewise we ought also to read with great attention his book dealing more or less with moral philosophy which is a collection from divine authority for the teaching and correction of moral behavior called The Mirror. We should also go through with tireless care the twenty-two books of St. Augustine's The City of God in which he shows both the chaos of Babylon, the city of the devil, and the brightness of Jerusalem, the city of Christ the Lord, in human life in their expected diversity. He also wrote to the priest Honoratus about five problems of the New Testament, and he worked out with remarkable intelligence eighty-three other problems. If anyone, however, wishes to correct his writings by careful examination and without erring through audacious presumption, let him read through the two books of St. Augustine's Reconsiderations thoughtfully. From them the reader prepares himself by imitating St. Augustine's method, and recognizes how great a supply of wisdom divine forgiveness bestowed on the most blessed Father, so that he whom no one perhaps could have reproved, corrects himself by a thorough reconsideration. It would take too long to mention all the works of this author. There is a fairly large volume containing an index to his works that annotates his writings briefly but still contains an extensive number of pages of reading.
XVII. Christian Historians
1. Christian studies, in addition to various commentators, include historians, influenced by serious Church affairs, who go through the changing events and the transformations of kingdoms with a bright but cautious splendor. Since they make reference to church affairs and describe changes occurring at different times, they must always teach the minds of the readers of heavenly matters. These historians insist that nothing happens by chance or because of the weak powers of the gods as the pagans do; instead they truly strive to attribute all events to the providential guidance of the Creator—as for example Josephus (almost a second Livy) who composed his books of Jewish Antiquities on a large scale. Father Jerome writing to Lucinus Betticus says that he cannot translate Josephus because of the size of this prolix work. We have had him translated into Latin in twenty-two books by our friends, a task involving great labor on their part since he is subtle and complex. He also wrote seven other marvelously clear books on the Jewish Captivity. Some ascribe the translation of this work to Jerome, others to Ambrose, still others to Rufinus. This work, since it is ascribed to such men, declares the special merits of its composition. After these one should read Eusebius' history in ten volumes in Greek, translated with additions of subsequent events by Rufinus, complete in eleven books. Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret wrote of the events in the Greek world in the period following the history of Eusebius; with God's aid we have had these works translated by the learned Epiphanius in a collection of twelve books so that eloquent Greece cannot boast that it possesses an indispensable work which has not been available to us. Also available to you is Orosius, who compares Christian and pagan history, if you wish to read him. I have also left you the work of Marcellinus in four books who discusses the nature of the times and includes a laudable and accurate account of the places he passed along the route of his journey.
2. The chronicles which are also reflections of history and the briefest memorials of the past were written in Greek by Eusebius; Jerome translated this work into Latin and in excellent fashion brought it down to his own time. Following Jerome, the aforementioned Marcellinus of Illyria extended Eusebius' work, with the Lord's aid, from the time of Emperor Theodosius up to the start of the glorious rule of the Emperor Justinian. Marcellinus is said to have been once the secretary of the patrician Justinian, but was raised to a higher civil position. In his earlier service he found favor and later appears very favored during Emperor Justinian's rule. St. Prosper also brought his chronicle from the time of Adam to the time of Genseric and the sack of the city. You may perhaps also find other later chroniclers, because there is no lack of historians to chronicle the epochs as the centuries pass on and succeed one another. But when you have been filled with events of the past, diligent reader, and your mind has been enlightened by divine radiance, read the book of St. Jerome on Famous Men in which he briefly does honor to and touches on the various Fathers and their works; and then the second book of Gennadius of Marseilles who confidently mentions writers on divine law whom he had sought out zealously. I have left you these writers gathered together in one collection so that looking for the same subject in different volumes does not cause additional delay.
3. The authors of many venerable texts follow. Now learned men either write books by divine inspiration or console themselves with the grace of letters, or describe people in sweet language or do battle with the heretics in energetic polemic. Some of them enter on controversies with special hostility and do battle in glorious debate in the midst of their judges. Thus, the faithful are strengthened when all the wicked are destroyed with the Lord's aid. Then you may choose for yourself among that most holy and eloquent group of Fathers with whom you may most pleasurably speak. Furthermore, it is difficult to describe how, when you consult them frequently, they ably reveal Holy Scripture with the most relevant citations. Therefore in passing you suddenly learn what you realize you had passed over in your carelessness. These learned men are outstanding witnesses in their varied excellence, and the Church shines with them as the heaven with twinkling stars.
VIII. St. Hilary
Among these is St. Hilary, bishop of Poitiers, subtle because of his great depth, and a careful controversialist. With God's aid he reverently brings up the deep abysses of Divine Scripture to make the obscurity of parables visible to the enlightened mind.
XIX. St. Cyprian
It is impossible to comprehend entirely the merit of blessed Cyprian in comparison to that of other writers (except for his views on the subject of repeated baptism which custom and argument the Church has rejected). As sweet as oil (Psalms 132:2), in formal language he is an outstanding speaker and a marvelous teacher. How many men in doubt has he kept from lapsing, how many backsliders has he supported and held by his firm preaching, and how many confessors has he brought all the way to martyrdom! In order not to be less than his preaching, he also was adorned with the crown of martyrdom with the Lord's aid. He left us, among other bright monuments of his eloquence, his commentary on the Lord's Prayer. He wrote this small book with a declamatory charm and it, like an invincible shield, is always set against deceptive views which creep in unseen.
XX. St. Ambrose
St. Ambrose was also a clear speaker, intensely serious, sweet and calm in argument, whose teaching was equal to his life since the grace of divinity favored him with no small miracles...
XXI. St. Jerome
1. Blessed Jerome also greatly enriched the Latin language. He has given to us in his translation of Divine Scripture so much that we hardly need to go to the Hebrew original since his great richness of eloquence satisfies us. He blessed us with many books and with the detailed letters he deigned to write with the Lord's aid. Clear, learned, sweet, and with a ready command of language, in whatever direction he turned his genius. Now he sweetly charms the humble, now he breaks the necks of the proud; now he turns back their unavoidable snappishness on his detractors, now he preaches virginity, now he defends chaste marriages, now he praises the glorious battles of the virtues, now he reproves the lapses of priests and monks into wickedness. Nevertheless wherever a passage allowed him, he added the sweetest variety of examples from pagan writers, explaining all, adorning all, and always moving along learnedly and smoothly through the various types of discussions. For although some of his books are extensive and rich, we do not long for the end of his book because of the sweetness of his style. I do not believe that he lived in Bethlehem and was at leisure there for any reason but that in the land of miracles his eloquence, like the sun, might shine on us from the East.
2. He wrote a marvelous letter to Paulinus, who was a senator and then a priest, explaining how the Divine Scripture ought to be read with care. In the letter he points out briefly and wonderfully the excellence of each book of the Old and New Testament. If I had found this earlier, I would perhaps have yielded to his eloquence and been content to say nothing on the same material; but since he wrote one thing and we another in the work now completed with the Lord's blessing, I think that the diligent reader will be profitably occupied by this brief book. He wrote to a reader inexperienced in the divine law, but nevertheless so educated in secular literature, that he also had written a shrewd and eloquent book about the Emperor Theodosius. At the time (as we are given to understand) he did not have many writers on this material to recommend for systematic reading, since at that time the soldiers of Christ were still toiling in a healthful sweat in the gymnasium of the holy law, and later he wrote many things in their company. We had a different reason. First we wrote to instruct simple and uneducated brothers so that they might be filled with holy writings by the study of many authors who have been elucidated in our time. Thus, they might laudably be instructed not so much by us who are poor men in this matter as from the extensive writings of the ancient Fathers. In order to assure that those who did not partake of the pursuits of this world do not lack anything, we think that they should be instructed in the arts and disciplines of secular letters briefly in the second book. Thus the knowledge of worldly letters may serve simple men, knowledge which came out of Divine Scripture except for the additions of some learned men. I hope that we are not attacked and blamed for our novel boldness and may receive a bit of gratitude for our small service.
XXII. St. Augustine
Blessed Augustine, that excellent teacher, warrior against the heretics, defender of the faithful, and winner of the palm in widely known contests, is in some books obscure because he is so difficult; yet in others he is so clear that he is available even to the little ones; his clear statements are sweet, but his obscure words are rich and filled with great usefulness. If anyone wants to know the liveliness of his intelligence, he should read the books of Augustine's Confessions in which he mentions that he had learned all the mathematical sciences without a teacher—a feat which others scarcely accomplish with the aid of learned teachers. He explains our creed too (the surety of our faith, the witness of an upright heart and the unfathomable guarantee of the promise) in many a commentary so that we, by understanding more deeply what we profess to believe may more carefully uphold our promises. We should also read the book in which he briefly summarizes the different heresies basing himself on the work of bishop Epiphanius, since no one of sane and intelligent mind would willingly crash on those rocks where he knows another suffered shipwreck. Indeed we ought to avoid in every way the views of those whom the prescient Church has condemned. Any rash statement of that sort should be vigorously rejected.
XXIII. The Abbot Eugippius and the Abbot Dionysius
1. It is also suitable for you to read the indispensable works of the priest Eugippius whom we ourselves saw—a man indeed not well educated in secular letters, but well read in Divine Scripture. For our relative Proba, a holy virgin, he excerpted from the works of St. Augustine profound problems and opinions as well as various other statements which he collected, compiled, and organized into a collection of 338 chapters. This book is recommended reading, since this diligent scholar set down in one collection what can scarcely be found in a great library.
2. Even today the Catholic Church produces illustrious men outstanding because of the beauty of their commendable teachings. Even in our time there was the monk Dionysius who was Scythian by birth but thoroughly Roman in his manner of life. Learned in both languages, he embodied the justice which he had read of in the books of the Lord in his actions. He discussed Divine Scripture and understood it so thoroughly that when he was questioned on any point, he had a suitable answer immediately ready. He read dialectic with me. By model of that glorious teaching he passed the many years of his life with the Lord's aid. I am ashamed to describe qualities in my friend that I cannot find in myself. There was great simplicity joined with wisdom, humility with learning, and brevity in his eloquence. He never set himself before any man, even the lowest servant, though he was certainly worthy of conversations with kings. May he who was accustomed to pray with us and whose prayers in this world supported us intervene for us so that his merits may now aid us. At the request of Stephen, bishop of Split, he translated with brilliant eloquence from Greek models the ecclesiastical canons which matched his own manner of life, for he was clear and learned. Today the Roman Church makes continual use of them. You ought to read them eagerly so that you do not remain through your own fault ignorant of the salutary rules of the Church. He also translated from Greek many other works suitable for ecclesiastical use. He possessed such skill in Latin and Greek that he translated into Latin without any difficulty any Greek books he took up, translating Latin authors into Greek so fluently and swiftly that you might think that the words he poured forth had already been written down.
3. It takes a long time to weave together all the qualities of this man. Among his other excellences he had this one in particular, that although he had dedicated himself completely to God, he did not reject dealings with laymen; he was chaste although he saw the wives of others every day. He was gentle although he was battered by the mad whirl of angry men. Moved by remorse he poured forth his tears although he heard chattering voices of ordinary pleasure. He fasted without upbraiding those who ate. When invited he so gladly took part in company that in the midst of the corporeal feasts he always when questioned exhibited his spiritual riches. But if occasionally he did eat, he took little food and that the common fare. So I think that the highest type of patience is keeping the rule of abstinence in the midst of human delights. Thus we may enumerate the good qualities of his mind with unreserved praise: he was strictly Catholic and completely and always attached to the regulations of old. Whatever question readers could raise concerning various authors, he was reputed to shine in knowledge of it. Evil men try in a libelous way to attribute the works of others to his melodious name to excuse their errors. But he, after leaving the perversity of the world with the Lord's aid and being received into the peace of the Church, we believe, has a place in the company of the servants of God.
4. I should perhaps still tell the rest about this holy man, which we know with the truth of total factual knowledge. But we must carry out our plan instead, which requires us to fulfill one promise by not dwelling too long on anther with importunate loquacity. To prevent deceit from hurting you in the rules of faith, read what you have at hand—the Council of Ephesus and Chalcedon as well as the encyclia, i.e. the letters of confirmation of the council. If you read them carefully the clever tricks of wicked men will never prevail over you.
XXIV. General Summary — The Zeal with Which Holy Scripture Ought to be Read
1. And so after the introductory books, let us read carefully through the scriptural text together with its commentators and let us with pious zeal follow the ways of understanding that have been given us by the labors of the Fathers; let us not look to non-existent problems with greedy excess. Let us believe that what is found reasonably stated in the best of expositors is surely divine. If anything happens to be out of harmony and discordant with the rules of the Fathers, let us consider it something to be avoided. The source of the worst kind of error is to approve of everything in authors who are suspect and to want to defend without judgment whatever you find there. For it is written, "test all things; hold fast that which is good" (I Thessalonians 5:21).
2. But to summarize the essential points: everything which the ancient commentators have spoken of in a laudable way ought to be grasped eagerly. But those subjects which they did not deal with should be scanned first to avoid being worn out by fruitless toil, to discover their strongest points and to what knowledge they may lead us and finally what we want to draw out of them in our reading. For although the text seems to be perfectly clear and to reflect a literal meaning, nevertheless it also urges justice or reproves impiety, either preaches tolerance or attacks the vices of inconstancy, either condemns pride or exalts the virtues of humility, either checks those who are not at peace or consoles those who are most full of love, or tells something that urges us to good conduct and turns us away from evil thoughts by its respect for goodness. For if God promised rewards to the good only, his forgiveness would be ignored and fade; and if he always threatened destruction to those who are evil, despair of their salvation would drive them on to vice. Thus the Holy Redeemer for our salvation has ruled in such a way that he both frightens the sinners with the punishment he announces and promises worthy rewards to the good.
3. Therefore let the mind be ever intent on the general meanings of the books, and let us set our minds on that contemplation which does not merely make a sound in the ears but lights the interior eye. Although the narrative seems to be simple, Divine Scripture contains nothing empty, nothing idle. It always speaks to some purpose which the righteous may profitably extract. When good actions are reported, we are aroused immediately to imitation; when it tells of punishable deeds, we fear to do them. Thus it happens that we always obtain something useful if we observe why these points are mentioned.
XXV. Geographers to be Read by Monks
1. Not without good reason do we urge you to read through geographical writings so that you know the location of each place you read of in holy books. It will certainly be to your benefit if you hasten to read carefully the small book of Julius Orator which I have left you. He has included in four sections information on the seas, islands, important mountains, provinces, cities, rivers and peoples; almost nothing relevant to an understanding of geography is lacking in the book. Marcellinus of whom I have already spoken should also be read with equal care. He described in minute detail the cities of Constantinople and Jerusalem in four books.
2. Then learn from Dionysius' briefly sketched Map where you may almost see with your own eyes what you heard of in the book mentioned above. Then if the noble desire for such knowledge claims you, you have the book of Ptolemy who described every place so clearly that you might almost think that he was an inhabitant of all regions. Thus, although you are in one place (as monks ought to be) you may traverse mentally what others in their travels have collected with a great deal of effort.
XXVI. On Citation Marks to be Added to Texts
1. We have also taken care to have the texts marked, that our labor may instruct you and furnish your pursuit of sanctity with some little gift. With the Lord's aid I have (as far as an old man worn out by his long pilgrimage could) been able to go over some of the works of the Fathers. In them I have set down on specific passages critical marks which I consider suitable and helpful. Indicated in red, these serve as pointers in the codices. We have used the following marks for comments: on the Octateuch, OCT; on Kings, REG; on the Psalter, PSL; on Solomon, SAL; on Prophets, PROP; on the Hagiographa, AGI; on the Gospels, EV; on the Letters of the Apostles, AP; on Acts and the Apocalypse, AAA. I have always written these at the beginning of the works which I have been able to go through according to my plan, so that you can clearly see them placed in the text if you look over each page studiously.
2. Then, if you like—those of you whose wide reading has made you bold- -an easy imitation is available to you through the most trustworthy commentators. Thus it will come about that another kind of commentary which is incisive and beautiful arises from this, and that matters our ancestors may have scarcely elucidated in their commentaries are found to be stated there at some point. The idioms of divine law, i.e., peculiar turns of phrase, we also mark with the character PP wherever they are found. These phrases are not to be rashly altered.
XXVII. On Figures and Disciplines
1. We offer the following advice: since both in sacred letters and in the most learned commentaries we can learn a great deal through figures of speech, through definitions, through grammar, rhetoric, dialectic, arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy, it is not irrelevant to touch briefly in the second book on the teachings of the secular teachers, i.e., the arts and disciplines and their divisions. In a brief compendium those who have already studied these subjects will find short notes and those who can scarcely read more widely may learn something of these subjects in this form. Knowledge of such matters is certainly useful and (as our fathers believed) should not be rejected since you find these subjects treated everywhere in sacred letters, the origin, as it were, of universal and complete wisdom. For when these subjects have been set down and presented to us they aid us in every way to understand.
2. Let our subject, therefore, be the effort of writers of previous generations—what they have set forth broadly in many books let us present briefly in the collection contained in the second book mentioned above. We in laudable devotion may call back to the service of truth the achievements they attained from the exercise of their cleverness. In this way what was removed from them secretly may be turned honestly to the service of correct understanding. It is a central and demanding task, I think, to include in two books the full sources of divine and human letters; on this point those famous verses of Sedulius might be cited:
"I demand great prizes, but you know how to give great prizes, and he offends more, who grows cool in expectation." (Sedulius, Carmen paschale, 1.359-350)
XXVIII. What Those Who Cannot Read Learned Literary Texts Ought to Read
1. But if some simple brothers cannot learn what has been anthologized in the following book because almost all brevity is obscure, let it suffice for them to grasp the divisions of these matters, their uses and their excellences, so that they may be drawn to the knowledge of divine law by strong motivation. They will find in the various holy Fathers the source from which they can fulfill their desires with the greatest richness, provided they have a sincere desire for reading and a clear wish to understand. Even the man who was frightened at first glance by the difficult reading material will become learned through dogged perseverance.
2. Let us learn that knowledge is not found in letters alone, but that God gives complete wisdom "to everyone according as he will" (I Corinthians 12:11). For if the knowledge of good things were only in letters, those who do not know letters obviously would not have righteous wisdom. But since many illiterate men come to true knowledge and grasp the right faith which has down heavenly inspiration, God surely gives pure and devout minds what he judges to be useful to them. For it is written: "Happy the man whom You instruct, O Lord, whom by your law You teach" (Psalms 93:12). We should, therefore, seek in good actions and continual prayer to reach, in the companionship of the Lord, true faith and holy works in which is our life eternal. For it is written: "Unless the Lord build the house, they labor in vain who build it" (Psalms 126:1).
3. But the holy Fathers have not decreed that the study of secular letters should be rejected either, since to a considerable degree we learn to understand Sacred Scripture from this source. But if, with the support of divine grace, we seek knowledge of these matters seriously and reasonably, they indicated not that we may find in secular letters hope of advancement, but that passing through them we should be eager to gain useful and redemptive wisdom from the "Father of Lights" (James 1:17). For how many philosophers choosing only this knowledge are unable to reach the source of wisdom and without the true light have been submerged in the blindness of ignorance. As someone has said, whatever is not sought for in its own way cannot be completely tracked down.
4. Many of our fathers, schooled in secular learning and abiding in the law of the Lord, reached true wisdom, as blessed Augustine recalls in his book Christian Learning with the words "haven't we seen Cyprian that sweet teacher and holy martyr come out of Egypt heavily laden with gold and silver and clothing, and with similar burdens Lactantius, Optatus, and Hilary?" We add Ambrose, Augustine himself, Jerome and many others "of the innumerable Greeks." We add also "the very faithful servant of God, Moses himself, did this, of whom it is written that he was "learned in all the wisdoms of the Egyptians" (Acts 7:22). And let us imitate these men, carefully but without hesitation and hastening to read both kinds of teaching if we can—for who would dare to hesitate with the example of so many such men before us?—with the full knowledge, as has often been said already, that the Lord can give good and true wisdom. As the Book of Wisdom says: "All wisdom comes from the Lord and with Him it remains forever" (Ecclesiasticus 1:1).
5. Therefore with all effort, with all toil, and with every desire, let us seek to deserve the attainment of such a great gift with the Lord's blessing. For this is a salutary, profitable, glorious, and eternal attainment for us from which death, inconstancy, and forgetfulness cannot separate us but will make us rejoice in that sweet land with the Lord in eternal exultation. But if in some of the brothers, as Vergil reminds us, "cold blood stands around their hearts" (Vergil, Georgics 2.484) so that they cannot be completely educated in either human or divine letters, let them be supported by a certain simple kind of knowledge and choose clearly what follows: "Let the countryside and running streams please me in the vales" (Vergil, Georgics 2.485). It is not alien for monks to cultivate gardens, to plow fields, and to rejoice in the harvest of fruits. For it says in Psalm 127: "You will eat hard-earned bread, you are blessed and it will be well for you" (Psalms 127:2).
6. If you are looking for authors on this subject, Gargilius Martialis has written most beautifully on gardens and also carefully described fertilizers for vegetables and their properties. By reading from his commentary, each with the Lord's aid can be fed and kept healthy. I have left this book to you among others. Columella and Aemilianus among others are equally praiseworthy writers on the cultivation of fields, the raising of doves, bees, and fish. Columella, an eloquent and charming writer, discusses various types of agriculture in sixteen books, more suitable for the learned than for the untaught; scholars of this work are treated not only to garden variety information, but also to a most satisfying banquet. Aemilianus, an eloquent commentator, has discussed in twelve clear and explanatory books gardens and flocks and other matters. I have left these with the Lord's aid among others to you to be read.
7. When these things are prepared for pilgrims and for the sick they become heavenly although they appear to be earthly. What a wonderful thing it is to refresh the weary either with sweet fruit or with the little baby doves or to feed them with fish or delight them with sweet honey. Since the Lord commanded us to give "even cold water in His name" (Matthew 10:42; Mark 9:40) to the poor man, how much more pleasing will it be to give the sweetest food to all the needy in return for which you can receive on the day of judgment the resultant reward multiplied. One must not neglect whatever activities can profitably aid man.
XXIX. On the Location of the Monastery of Vivarium or Castellum
1. The location of the monastery of Vivarium encourages us to prepare many things for pilgrims and the needy from the irrigated gardens and the fish-filled stream of Pellena which flows nearby. The stream is neither dangerous from big waves nor negligible because of slight flow. Directed skillfully it flows wherever you consider it necessary and provides enough water for your gardens and mills. It is available when needed and when it has satisfied your needs it recedes to a distance; when turned to a specific purpose, its sudden appearance does not frighten nor does it fail to appear when it is required. The sea also lies before you for various kinds of fishing and the captured fish can be closed up in fish ponds when you wish. For with God's aid we have constructed pleasant pools here in which many fish meander safely in pens. It is so like a mountain cave that the fish does not realize that it is held captive since it has freedom both to get is food and to hide in hollows as usual. We have also had baths constructed to benefit the afflictions of the body. Clear streams, known to be pleasant for drinking and washing, flow nicely into the baths. So your monastery is sought by outsiders, rather than that you should have any reason to long for other places. But these things, as you well know, are the pleasures of this present world, not the future hope of the faithful; for the former will pass, the latter will remain without end. Although we are settled here we should transfer our desires to those things which will enable us to reign with Christ.
2. Read devotedly and gladly what Cassian the priest wrote about the instruction of faithful monks. He says at the beginning of his holy treatise that there are eight cardinal vices to be avoided at the outset of a holy vocation. He comprehends the dangerous movements of minds so well that he almost makes a man see and avoid the excesses which his dark confusion had hidden from him. Cassian has been justly criticized by blessed Prosper on the question of free will. On this account we are warned to read him with some care because he has gone beyond the mark in such matters. Victor of Maktar, an African bishop, with the Lord's aid has corrected his writings and has added what little was missing so that he deserves credit for these words. We believe you ought to search for his work, among others from the region of Africa immediately. Cassian does violently attack other sects of monks, but you, dear brothers, with God's aid should choose that role which Cassian has praised soundly.
3. But if, as we trust, the monastic way of life in the monastery of Vivarium has properly trained you with the aid of divine grace, and if your purified minds happen to desire something higher, you have the pleasant retreat of Mount Castellum where you can live happily like anchorites with the Lord's aid. The place there is as secluded as a desert since it is entirely enclosed by ancient walls. It will be proper for those of you who have already been trained and tested to choose this dwelling place if you have prepared the ascent in your heart first. As a result of reading you know which of the two states you can desire or endure. It is a great thing that one who cannot teach others by his words may instruct them obviously by the sanctity of his ways when he has preserved rectitude in his way of life.
XXX. On Scribes and Advice on Proper Spelling
1. Despite what can be accomplished by physical work, I have to admit that what pleases me most (not perhaps unjustifiably) is the work of the scribes if they write correctly. By reading through Scripture they instruct their minds and by writing they spread the beneficial teachings of the Lord far and wide. A happy purpose, a praiseworthy zeal, to preach to men with the hand, to set free tongues with one's fingers and in silence to give mankind salvation and to fight with pen and ink against the unlawful snares of the devil. For Satan receive as many wounds as the scribe writes words of the Lord. Thus, while he remains in one place, he travels through different regions by the dissemination of his work; his work is read in holy places; the people hear how they may turn from evil purposes and serve the Lord purely; he does his work apart from his work. I can state that he can grasp the recompense from so many good works, provided he does them not at the urging of desire but in a virtuous pursuit. A man multiplies the heavenly words and, if I may speak in a comparative sense, he writes with three fingers what the excellence of the holy Trinity speaks. O sight most glorious to those who consider it well! With moving pen he writes the heavenly words and transforms the reed with which the devil struck at the Lord's head during the passion into an instrument to destroy his guile. It also adds to their glory that they seem to imitate the action of the Lord who wrote his law (though this is only stated figuratively) by the movement of his omnipotent finger (Exodus 31:18). Many things indeed can be said of this outstanding art, but it is enough to say that they are called scribes who serve the balance and justice of the Lord.
2. But to avoid mixing the great good with faulty words by altering letters or lest the uneducated corrector not know how to correct errors, the scribes should read the ancient orthographers, i.e. Velius Longus, Curtius Valerianus, Papirianus, and Adamantius Martyrius on V and B, also on the initial, medial, and final syllables, and also on the letter B set in three places in a word, and Eutyches on aspiration, also Focas on the distinctions in gender. I have collected as many of these writers as I could with assiduous care. To avoid leaving ambiguity in any of the above-mentioned works which would create confusion because of the bewildering mixture of ancient inflections found in the books, I have gone to great pains to see that the excerpted rules come down to you in a separate compilation called Proper Spelling. When questions are resolved in this way the mind freely approaches a means of emendation. We have found that Diomedes and Theoctistus have written something on this technique; if the works are found you also ought to excerpt and collect them. Perhaps you will also find others by whom your knowledge may be improved. But those I mentioned will reward your close reading by removing all your dark ignorance and you will become familiar with matters which at this point you know nothing of.
3. We have also brought in men who are skilled in bookbinding with the object of covering the loveliness of sacred letters with external beauty. In this we imitate to some extent that example of the parable of the lord who dressed in wedding garments those whom he thought he should invite to dinner in the glory of the heavenly banquet (Matthew 22:11). If I am not mistaken we have displayed many types and patterns of bindings for books in one useful codex so that the interested reader himself can choose the form of cover he prefers.
4. We have also had self-fueling mechanical lights made for study at night which maintain their bright flames. They fully maintain a copious abundance of bright rich light without human attention. In them the rich oil does not fail, although they burn continuously with a bright flame.
5. We have not allowed you to be ignorant in any way of the measurement of time which was invented for the great use of the human race. I have, therefore, provided a clock for you which the light of the sun marks, and another, a water clock which continually indicates the number of the hours by day and night, because on those days when the brightness of the sun is missing, the water traces marvelously on earth the course that the fiery power of the sun runs on its path above. Thus, things which are divided in nature, men's art has made to run together; in these devices the trustworthiness of events stands with such truth that their harmonious function seems to be arranged by messengers. These things have been furnished so that the soldiers of Christ, reminded by certain signs, may be called to carry on the divine work as though by the sound of trumpets.
XXXI. Doctors
1. But I address you, distinguished brothers, who vigilantly attend to the health of the human body. You carry out the duties of blessed compassion for those who seek refuge at holy places. You are sad at the suffering of others, sorrowful for those in danger, grieved at the pain of those who are taken in, and are always distressed at the misfortunes of others afflicted with their own sorrow. As you serve the sick with genuine devotion in accordance with the teachings of your art, you will receive your reward from him who can repay temporal deeds with eternal rewards. Learn, therefore, the properties of herbs and study the mixtures of drugs carefully; but do not put your hope in medicines and do not seek health in human counsels. For although the Lord is said to have invented medicine, it is he himself who certainly grants life, cures the sick (Ecclesiasticus 38:1). For it is written: "Whatever you do in word or in work, do all in the name of the Lord Jesus, giving thanks to God the Father through Him" (Colossians 3:17).
2. Even if you do not have eloquent knowledge of Greek literature, you have first the Herbal of Dioscorides who discusses and sketches accurately the herbs of the fields. After this read Hippocrates and Galen translated into Latin, i.e. the Therapeutics of Galen addressed to the philosopher Glaucus and a certain anonymous work which has been collected from various authors; then Caelius Aurelius Medicine and Hippocrates Herbs and Cures and various other works written on the art of medicine which, with the Lord's aid, we have left to you in the recesses of our library.
XXXII. Advice to the Abbot and Congregation of Monks
1. Therefore, all who are enclosed within the monastery walls, keep the rules of the Fathers and the commandments of your own director. Gladly carry out what you have been ordered to do for your own good, because there is a valuable reward for obeying redemptive rules without complaint. I urge you, Abbots Chalcedonius and Gerontius, most holy men, to arrange everything in such a way that you can bring the flock entrusted to you, with God's aid, to the gift of blessedness. Above all, receive the stranger, give alms, dress the naked, break "bread for the hungry" (Isaiah 58:7), since that man will be truly comforted who comforts the wretched.
2. Educate also the peasants who belong to your monastery in good moral behavior; do not weigh them down with the burden of increased exactions. For it is written: "For my yoke is easy, and my burden light" (Matthew 11:30). Let them not know of stealing and let them particularly not know of the worship of groves—practices which are known to be familiar to peasants. Let them live in innocent community with happy simplicity. Let there be a second rank ordained for them in the monastic life. Have them come often to the holy monasteries so that they may be ashamed to be called yours and not to be known as part of your institution. Let them know that God worthily gives fertility to their fields if they are accustomed to call upon him faithfully.
3. You have received a city of your own, pious citizens, in which, if you pass your life harmoniously and religiously with the Lord's aid, you will rejoice in this prefiguration of the heavenly land. Do not love sloth, which you know is hateful to the Lord. The instructive materials of Holy Scripture together with its commentators are available to you, commentators who are indeed flowery fields, the sweet fruits of the heavenly paradise, from which the faithful souls are instructed to their salvation and your tongues are trained not with perishable, but fertile eloquence. Therefore read eagerly of the mysteries of the Lord so that you can show the way to those who follow. It is a shameful burden to have something to read and not to know what to teach.
4. Therefore, with a thought toward future blessedness, always read the lives of the Fathers, the confessions of the faithful, the passions of the martyrs, which, among other things, you will certainly find in the letter sent by St. Jerome to Chromatius and Heliodora. These readings have been famous throughout the whole world and, as a result, a holy desire for imitation will stir you and lead you to the kingdom of heaven. You know that crowns are given not only for the struggles of blood and for the virginity of the flesh. All who with God's aid overcome the sins of their bodies and believe rightly, receive the palm of sacred reward. So that you may more easily with God's aid overcome the death-dealing delights (as it is stated) and evil enticements of the world and be pilgrims in this world (Hebrews 11:13), as is said of the blessed, hasten to that redemptive cure of the first Psalm that you "may meditate on the law of God day and night" (Psalms 1:2). Then the shameless enemy will not find a place since Christ occupies the entire mind. St. Jerome has also expressed it well, saying: "Love the knowledge of Scripture and you will not love the sins of the flesh."
5. Tell me, prudent men, what greater blessing is there than to have the favor of him whose wrath we cannot escape? For if the voice of the herald announces the prefect, if we know that his wagon is passing by the groaning of its wheels, do we not throw off all the delights of the heart when we fear his presence and his respect? God thunders through the vault of heaven, he shows his lightning in the clouds and often he shakes the foundations of the earth (Psalms 17:13) and (alas) his presence is not feared although he is everywhere entire and omnipotent. Therefore let us not believe that the judge is absent, and we shall not come as defendants to his judgment seat. Let him who sins less give thanks that he has not been deserted by God's mercy and thus fallen headlong into sin; let the man who has committed many sins pray without ceasing. Let no one turn to lying excuses and tricky wishes. Let us confess that we are defendants who have sinned in every respect. Nothing is more foolish than to want to lie to him who cannot be fooled. For mercy is granted when it is sought with a pure spirit. No case is worse in the sight of a compassionate judge than when the defendant neglects his own salvation.
6. Let us pray, therefore, dearest brothers, that he who has given such blessings to the human race that he deigned to carry the lost sheep on his shoulders and break the chains of sin by taking on flesh disclose the mysteries of the faith to those who are ignorant and estranged from them, give baptism, grant martyrdom, persuade the offering of alms and cleanse us by the holy teaching of the prayer that tells us to forgive the sins of our brother so that he also may likewise remit our debts (Matthew 6:12); that we may convert the wanderer so that the bonds of our error be loosened; that we may seek penitence with the greatest zeal; that we have abundant love towards God and our neighbor.
7. Besides these things the most merciful Redeemer has granted us the communion of his body and his blood so that in this way the generosity of the Creator can best be understood. For by his great kindness he grants us absolution if we seek him with a pure heart. May he now add also increase to his gifts; let him enlighten our minds, let him purify our hearts so that we deserve to learn his Holy Scripture with a pure mind, and with his grace aiding us carry out his commands.
XXXIII. Prayer
1. Give, Lord, advancement to those who read, remission of all sins to who seek to learn your law so that we who greatly desire to come to the light of your Scriptures may not be blinded by darkening sin. By this power of your omnipotence draw us to you; do not leave "those whom you have redeemed with your precious blood" (Te Deum 20) to wander at their own free will; do not allow your image in us to be obscured. If it is protected by your aid it always stands out. Let not your gifts be overturned by the devil or by us, because everything is weak which strives to oppose you. Hear us, pious King, in spite of our sins and first take them from us before you can condemn us rightly for them in your deliberation.
2. Why does our evil lay a trap for us? Why do our sins fight against us? Why do sins desire to overturn your creation even though they have no firm substance? Let the devil tell for certain why he pursues us with insatiable desire. It surely was not we who advised him that he should be proud before you, the Lord, and fall from the blessedness that he had received, when through you he possessed the marks of such great excellence. Let it be enough that he struck us down in Adam. Why does the wicked false accuser attack us with daily deceits? Why does he also seek to separate us from grace as he through his own fault fell from your grace?
3. Grant us, O Lord, the kindly aid of your defense against this most cruel enemy so that although he does not cease to attack our weakness, he will nevertheless depart confounded by your power. Do not allow, good king, the most savage enemy to fulfill his desires on us. Why does he, who chose to offend you seriously, "as a roaring lion go about?" (I Peter 5:8). What does he hasten to devour? Once we renounced him in sacred baptism, once we confessed that we believed in you, O Lord. Grant us, good creator, protection by your defense to enable us to remain as pure as you conceded at the time of baptism. Let those of us who have begun to be yours not recognize another master. Let us who have been redeemed by your grace, carry out the commandments you have given us. If you leave us, the slippery fiend attacks us. Tireless and shameless he is always present counting human destruction as his gain. He flatters to deceive; he stirs up to destroy. He deceives our soul in particular through our body and slipping in thus he spreads throughout human desires so that he is not perceived by foresight or plan. It takes a long time to mention everything. Who can oppose such a one unless you, O Lord, had decided to oppose him? What could he do with us if he dared to tempt you with crafty designs when you were in our body? Hear us, O guardian of men. Here by your indulgence free us from him who wants to drag us to Gehenna. Let us not cast our lot with him that we may cast our lot with you, O Lord. Protect your creation from him who destroys it. Let him who has condemned himself not bring about the damnation of others but let him who hastens to destroy all perish with his own.
4. Quickly now, O dear brothers, hasten to advance in Sacred Scripture, since you know that I have gathered so many great and varied works for you to increase your learning with the aid of the Lord's grace. Grant, as you read, in exchange your continual prayers for me to the Lord, since it is written "pray for one another that you may be saved" (James 5:16). O inestimable compassion and excellence of the creator. He promises that it is beneficial for us to pray in common for one another to the merciful Lord.
BOOK II
Preface
1. The preceding book, completed with the Lord's aid, contains an introduction to divine readings. Its 33 chapters correspond in number to the age of the Lord when he gave eternal life to a world dead from sin and granted everlasting rewards to believers. Now it is time for us to go through the text of the present book which has been arranged according to the seven divisions of secular letters; and this number revolves constantly as week succeeds week and stretches to the end of time.
2. It must be clearly understood that often Sacred Scripture uses the number seven to mean continuous and perpetual. Thus David says, "Seven times a day I praise you," although elsewhere he says, "I will bless the Lord at all times; his praise shall be ever in my mouth," and Solomon, "Wisdom has built her house, she has set up her seven columns." In Exodus also the Lord says to Moses, "You shall then make seven lamps for it and so set up the lamps that they shed their light on the space in front of the lampstand." And the Apocalypse in every way repeats this number in various contexts. This number brings us to that eternal time because it has no end; truly therefore it is always used there where perpetual time is to be understood.
3. Thus we highly commend the study of arithmetic, since the Lord, maker of things, arranged the universe by number, weight and measure, as Solomon says: "You have disposed all things by measure and number and weight." The creature of God indeed has thus been made with number, since he himself says in the Gospel, "But as for you, the very hairs of your head are all numbered." The creature of God also is made with measure, as he himself says in the Gospel, "But which of you by being anxious about it can add to his stature a single cubit?" Also the prophet Isaia says: "Who marked off the heavens with a span, and who has held in a measure the dust of the earth?" Finally, the creature of God has been made with weight as he says in the proverbs of Solomon, "And he marked out the vault over the face of the deep," and a little after, "When he fixed fast the foundations of the earth, I was beside him." Therefore each wonderful work of God is bounded by an indispensable limit. Since we believe that God created everything, we may to a certain extent judge how things are made. We are given to understand that the evil works of the devil are not defined by weight, measure and number, since the result of injustice is always the opposite of justice, as the thirteenth Psalm reminds us, "Contrition and unhappiness is in their ways, and they do not know the way of peace." Isaia also says: "They have left the Lord of Hosts and walk upon crooked ways." Truly God is wonderful and most wise to set off all his creations by a particular arrangement, so that they are not marred by confusion. Father Augustine has a detailed discussion of this subject in the fourth book of Genesis Taken Word for Word.
4. It is our intention and desire to write down some material briefly on the art of grammar or rhetoric or on the disciplines. We must start with the principles of these matters, and must speak first of the treatment of definitions. In this book we must first speak about the art of grammar, which is clearly the origin and basis of the liberal letters. Book is named from liber, that is, from the bark cut off and removed from the tree, on which the ancients wrote their poems before the invention [there was a full supply] of papyrus. In this derivation is our license to make books short or long; just as bark covers both shrubs and encloses large trees, so we may limit the length of books according to the nature of the subjects. We ought to know, as Varro says, that all arts initially came into being for some useful purpose. Art arises from the constraints (artet) and checks its rules impose on us. Others say that the word was drawn from the Greeks apo tes aretes, that is, from excellence , which learned men call the knowledge of each thing. Second, we will discuss the art of rhetoric, which we consider entirely indispensable and honorable particularly in civil cases because of its brilliance and eloquence. Third, logic, which is called dialectic. This discipline, to the extent that the secular teachers speak of it, separates truth from falsity by subtle and concise discussion. Fourth, mathematics, which includes four disciplines: arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy [the astronomical art]. In Latin indeed we can call [And we can call] the mathematical art [in Latin] "theoretical." Although we can call all teaching theoretical (doctrinale), this term, common to all the disciplines, applies particularly to mathematics because of its excellence. Mathematics is the science which considers quantity in the abstract; by definition an abstract quantity is what we treat by reckoning alone after we have mentally separated it from matter or other accidentals.
5. Thus of the whole book, as promised, a certain arrangement. Now with the Lord's support, let us show through divisions and definitions how each of them has been promised [they have been promised]. There are two ways of teaching something, since both the written line carefully instructs the sight and afterwards the hearing of the ears now prepared enters in. And we will not pass over in silence those authors, both Greek and Latin, who have been important in explaining the matters we have been talking about. All who are [Anyone who is eager] to read may, with the guidance of this summary, understand the words of the earlier writers more clearly.
I. Grammar
[...]
II. Rhetoric
1. Rhetoric is said to derive from apo tu rhetoreuin, that is, the facility for artistic speech. The art of rhetoric, as the teachers of secular letters teach, is the technique of speaking effectively in civil cases. Therefore the orator is, as has been said, "a good man skilled in speaking" in civil cases. The task of the orator is to speak in such a way as to persuade; his goal is to persuade by his manner of speaking, insofar as the nature of the circumstances and the individuals involved seems to allow. Let us therefore take up some matters briefly so that we may virtually understand the sum total and excellence of the entire art by a survey of some of its divisions. According to Fortunatianus, a recent writer on the art, civil cases are defined as those" which the ordinary mind can understand, i.e., which anyone can understand since they deal with equity."
2. The elements of rhetoric are: discovery arrangement style memory delivery. Discovery is the organization of matters true or plausible to make the case convincing. Arrangement is the attractive distribution in the proper arrangement of the matter devised. Style is the selection of words proper to the matter devised. Memory is a firm retention in the mind of the subject matter and the words. Delivery is the pleasing control of voice and body suited to the worth of the subject matter and the words.
3. There are three main kinds of cases: epideictic deliberative judicial The epideictic type is seen when we point to some subject in which there is praise or censure. The deliberative type contains persuasion and dissuasion. The judicial type contains accusation and defense, or suit for or denial of an award or penalty.
4. The issue is the matter in dispute; it consists of accusation and reply. The issues of cases are either those involving reasoning, or legal . Cases which involve reasoning as it relates to general cases are four in number: conjecture—request for pardon—acknowledgement—justification. But, as Cicero himself says by way of correction in On the Orator, transference must be counted among the legal issues, for also Fortunatianus says: "We understand transference only as legal. Why so? Because no transference, i.e. no assignment, can exist without a law." There are five legal issues: letter and spirit conflicting laws ambiguity analogy or deduction legal definition.
5. An issue is conjectural when a fact charged by one side is denied by the opposition. An issue is definitive when we maintain that the fact is not that which is charged, but show what it is by the use of definitions. Character arises when the situation demands to know of what sort the case is. Because the matter in dispute deals with the meaning and the type of an act, it is called the general issue. [It is called a transferred issue] When in a case the one who seems to be bringing the case is not the proper man or not before the proper court or at the proper time or according to the proper law or with the proper charge or with the proper penalty it is called a transferred issue [a transference is added (it is added to transference)] because it seems to require transference and alteration. An issue of equity arises when the nature of right and equity or motive for punishment is sought. The customary issue arises when there is consideration of what justice there is in accordance with civil custom and equity. The absolute issue is one which in itself raises the question of justice and injury. The assumptive issue is one which has no foundation of its own for refutation but takes up some external defense. Acknowledgement, as we have shown [will show], relates to penitents. It occurs when the defendant does not make a defense of the action but pleads for pardon. Rejection of the charge occurs when the defendant tries to shift the charge from himself and his responsibility to another by the force of argument or influence. Counter-accusation occurs when one argues that an act was just because someone was unjustly injured [has unjustly injured] beforehand. Comparison is used in arguing that the defendant did some other honorable and worthy deed which also brought about the commission of the act charged. Exculpation arises when the deed is in fact admitted, but blame set aside. The plea for exculpation has three subdivisions: ignorance, accident, necessity. The plea for mercy arises when the defendant confesses the crime and premeditation, and yet seeks pardon; this type can rarely occur.
6. The issue of the letter and spirit of the law comes up when the words themselves seem to be at variance with the intention of the writer of the law. The issue of conflicting laws arises when two or more law disagree with one another. Ambiguity arises when the text seems to have two or more meanings. Inference, which is also called reasoning by analogy, arises when something is understood from the text [which has not been written there]. Legal definition arises when the meaning of the word, as it were, in the definitive issue in which it is placed is brought into question. Therefore some number the rational and legal issues definitively as 18. But according to the rhetorical writings of Cicero there are 19, because he set transference among the major rational issues. As a result Cicero, as stated above, correcting himself, added transference to his legal issues.
7. Every controversy, as Cicero says, is either simple or complex, and if it is complex, we must consider whether it involves several questions or some comparison. A simple case is one which consists of one intrinsic question, such as: shall we declare war on Corinth or not? A complex case is made up of several questions in which there are several inquiries, in the following manner: whether Carthage should be destroyed, or given back to the Carthaginians, or should a colony be sent there? A case involving comparison arises when the question concerns what is more or most desirable in the following way: should an army be sent to Macedonia against Philip to aid our allies or kept in Italy so that the greatest force possible may oppose Hannibal?
8. There are five types of cases: honorable, difficult, petty, ambiguous, obscure. An honorable case is one which immediately wins the mind of the listener without delivery of any speech. The difficult case is one which has alienated the minds of those who are about to hear it. The petty case is one which is disregarded by the listener and seems one he need not attend to. An ambiguous case [is] one in which the point of the judicial examination is doubtful or the case partakes of both the honorable and the discreditable so that it receives both good will and disfavor. The obscure case is one in which either the listeners are slow to understand or the case is judged to involve [involves] matters which are difficult to grasp.
9. There are six parts in a rhetorical speech: introduction, statement of the facts, division, proof, refutation, conclusion. The introduction is speech that suitably prepares the mind of the listener for the rest of the discourse. The statement of the facts sets forth the events that have occurred or might have occurred. The division is that part of a speech which, if it is correctly handled, makes the whole speech clear and apparent. Proof is that part which sets out the arguments and gives credit, authority, and a foundation to our case. Refutation is the section in which our opponents' proof is weakened or damaged by the presentation of arguments. The conclusion ends and closes the entire speech sometimes with a tearful recapitulation of the chief points.
10. Although Cicero, the chief light of Latin eloquence, set these matters out fully and carefully in various books, and included them in his two books On the Art of Rhetoric (and I believe that I left you a commentary by Marius Victorinus on these from [in] my library), nevertheless [also] Quintilian, an outstanding teacher even after the breadth of Ciceronian learning, very ably expanded Cicero's teaching. Quintilian begins the education of the "good man skilled in speaking" at an early age. He has shown that the orator must be educated in all the noble arts and disciplines of letters if he is to be the right choice of the entire state for its defense. We have decided therefore to join the two books of Cicero On the Art of Rhetoric and the twelve of Quintilian's Institutes so that the codex will not be too large and so that both of these indispensable works are always ready and at hand. We have fashioned [are fashioning] the detailed and exact three volume work on the subject by the recent teacher Fortunatianus into a suitable handsized book, to take away the reader's aversion and still introduce him to what he needs. Let those who like brevity read him; for although he did not expand his work into many books, his discussions of most subjects are sharp and penetrating. You will find these books together with their preface in one collection.
[...]
III. Dialectic
1. The first philosophers gave a place to dialectic in their teachings, [in the proofs of their own statements] but did not know how to reduce it to the technique of an art. After them, Aristotle, who was a careful student [commentator] on all disciplines, systematized the methods of this field which previously had not been subject to definite directions. By writing outstanding works he [this man] brought great praise to the school of Greece. And since we can no longer allow him to be a stranger, we have introduced him to Roman eloquence in an annotated translation.
2. Varro in his nine books of Disciplines defined dialectic and rhetoric by the following simile: "Dialectic and rhetoric are like the clenched fist and open palm in a man's hand," the former narrows its words, the latter expands them. Dialectic is indeed a keener instrument for discussing issues; rhetoric, more eloquent in purposeful teaching. The former resides in the schools, the latter always goes out to the law courts and assemblies. The former has need of a few scholars, the latter seeks crowds of people.
3. But before we speak of syllogisms, which display the whole usefulness and excellence of dialectic, we must discuss briefly its starting-points, as it were, certain elements, so that the direction of our discussion will take the same course as that followed by our predecessors. Thus it is the custom of teachers of philosophy, before they begin to comment on the Isagoge, to touch briefly on the branches of philosophy. We will also maintain these divisions and believe that they should be mentioned at this point.
[...]
5. Philosophy is the demonstrable (insofar as it is humanly possible) knowledge of divine and human matters. On the one hand, philosophy is the art of arts and discipline of disciplines. On the other, philosophy is a preparation for dying, which is better fitted to Christians who trample down the lusts of this world and live a life of principle in a likeness of the homeland to come, as the Apostle says: "For though we walk in the flesh, we do not make war according to the flesh;" and elsewhere, " Our citizenship is in heaven."
6. Theoretical philosophy is that by which we go beyond the visible world to contemplate something of the divine and heavenly, and which we see only with the mind, since we have gone beyond corporeal sight. Natural philosophy is the investigation of the nature of each thing. Without the cooperation of nature [against the wishes of nature] nothing comes into being, but each thing is destined to those uses for which the creator limited [produced] it, unless perhaps by God's will some miracle occurs. Mathematical science by definition deals with quantity in the abstract. An abstract quantity is that which we deal with by calculation alone. We thus treat equals, unequals, and other things of this sort by mentally separating these quantities from matter or other accidents. Divine philosophy arises when we discuss the ineffable nature of God or spiritual creations partaking in some degree of a most profound nature. Arithmetic is the study of quantity (that which can be counted) in itself. Music is the study that discusses numbers which have a relationship to those which are found in tones. Geometry is the study of stationary magnitudes and shapes. Astronomy is the study of the movements of the stars in heaven. It considers and investigates by reason all configurations and movements of the stars in relation to one another and to the earth.
7. Practical philosophy attempts to explain proposed matters on the basis of their effects. Ethical philosophy through which a proper way is sought is the establishment of principles aiming at virtue. Economic philosophy is the theory of the wisely ordered disposition of private affairs. Political philosophy is the theory for the effective governance of the entire state.
8. Now that we have dealt with the inclusive divisions and definitions of philosophy, let us turn to Porphyry's book entitled the Isagoge. The Isagoge of Porphyry deals with five predictables: genus, species, differentiating characteristic, property, and accident. Genus is a class of things that contains things related in essence but differing in species, for example animal. The genus animal is predicated and defined through individual species, i.e. of man, ox, horse. Species is what is predicated in respect of essence of several things differing in number. Man is predicated of Socrates, Plato, Cicero. A differentiating characteristic is predicated in respect of quality from several objects differing in species, as, for example, rational and mortal are predicated as qualities of man. A property is that in respect of which each species or person is marked by definite addition and in respect of which it is separated from every class (communio), as laughter in a man and neighing in a horse. Accident is what is added or subtracted without change in the subject or those things so added that are not subtracted at all. Anyone who wants to know more of these matters should read the introductory work of Porphyry. Although he states that he is writing to make another's work useful, he nevertheless gained praise for himself for having fashioned such statements.
9. The categories or predicates of Aristotle follow, in which all discourse is wondrously contained in various meanings. Its instruments or terms are three in number. The terms or instruments of categories or predications are three: equivocal, univocal, denominative. Equivocal are defined as those which only have a common name, but in the name have a different sense of substance. For example, both an actual man and a man in a painting are animal. Univocal are defined as those which have a common name and do not differ in the name but have the same sense of substance; e.g., both a man and an ox are animal. Denominative, i.e. derivative, is whatever gets an appellation in a name; it differs from that name only in suffixes, for example grammarian from grammar and brave from bravery.
10. The categories or predications of Aristotle are ten in number: substance, quantity, relation, quality, action, emotion/passion, place, time, position, state. Substance is that which is defined properly and primarily and particularly, which is neither predicated of a subject nor present in a subject, as some particular man or some particular horse. Second substances are defined as those species in which what are called first substances are present and included, as Cicero is in the species of man. Quantity is of two sorts: (1) it is discrete and has separate parts that do not share some common end, for example number and uttered speech; (2) it is continuous, and has parts that are joined to one another for some common end, such as line, surface, body, place, time. Relation defines one thing in relation to another, like greater, double, condition, placement, knowledge, sense, location. Quality is that by which we are said to be of some sort, as good, bad. Action is, e.g., cutting or burning, i.e., doing something. Passion is, e.g., being cutting or being burned. Place is, e.g. one stands, sits, lies. Time is yesterday or tomorrow. Position is as in Asia, in Europe, in Libya. State is, e.g., to have shoes on or to have armor on. We must read this work of Aristotle carefully since, as has been said, whatever men speak of is inevitably found among these ten predications. It is useful indeed to understand books that deal either with rhetoric or dialectic.
11. The next book to be considered is the Perihermenias. It is a subtle and careful study, filled with different forms and repetitions. They say of it that "Aristotle, when he was composing the Perihermenias, dipped his pen in his mind." In the Perihermenias, i.e., On Interpretation, the philosopher dealt with the following: noun, verb, sentence, declaration, affirmation, denial, contradiction. A noun is a sound that derives significance from convention, without time reference, whose parts have no significance separately, e.g., Socrates. A verb is that which marks the time, of which a part signifies nothing more, and always indicates some time that refers to other things, as " thinks," "discusses." A sentence is a significant portion of speech whose parts are separately significant, e.g., "Socrates discusses." An assertion is a significant portion of speech [about] something that is or is not, as "Socrates exists," "Socrates does not exist." An affirmation is an assertion of something about something, as "Socrates exists;" a denial is of something about something, as "Socrates does not exist." A contradiction is the opposing of affirmation and denial, as "Socrates discusses, Socrates does not discuss." All these matters are treated in great detail by division and sub-division in the book. It should suffice to mention briefly [those things] the definitions of these matters, since the book itself presents a suitable explanation. Furthermore a commentary on it in six books by the patrician Boethius has been left to you among the other books.
12. Now we come to the types and figures of syllogisms in which the intellect of noble philosophers is continuously trained. The figures of the categorical, i.e. predicative, syllogisms are three: in the first figure there are nine moods, in the second figure, four moods, in the third, six.
The nine moods of the first figure are:
1) that conclusion which infers a universal affirmative from a universal affirmative directly as: "Everything just is honorable; everything honorable is just; therefore, everything just is good;"
2) that which concludes a negative universal from affirmative and negative universals: "Everything just is honorable; nothing honorable is base; therefore, nothing just is base;"
3) that which concludes a particular affirmation from a particular and a universal affirmation: "Something just is honorable; everything honorable is useful; therefore, something just is useful;"
4) that which concludes a particular negation from a particular affirmation and a universal negation : "Something just is honorable; nothing honorable is base; therefore, something just is not base;"
5) that which concludes from universal affirmations a particular affirmation by conversion: " Everything just is honorable; everything honorable is good; therefore, something good is just;"
6) that which concludes from a universal affirmation and a universal negation a universal negation by conversion: "Everything just is honorable; nothing honorable is base; therefore, nothing base is just;"
7) that which concludes from [a particular and] a universal affirmation a particular affirmation by conversion: "Something just is honorable; everything honorable is useful; therefore, something useful is just;"
8) that which concludes from a negative and affirmative universal a particular negation by conversion: "Nothing base is honorable; everything honorable is just; therefore, something just is not base;"
9) that which concludes from a universal negation a particular negation by conversion: "Nothing base is honorable; something honorable is just; therefore, something just is not base."The four moods of the second figure are:
(1) that which concludes a universal negation directly from a universal affirmation and universal negation: "Everything just is honorable; nothing base is honorable; therefore, nothing base is just [just is base];"
(2) that which concludes a universal negation directly from a universal negation and a universal affirmation: "Nothing base is honorable; everything just is honorable; therefore, nothing base is just;"
(3) that which concludes a particular negation directly from a particular affirmation and a universal negation: "Something just is honorable; nothing base is honorable; therefore, something just is not base;"
(4) that which concludes a particular negation directly from a particular negation and a universal affirmation: "Something just is not base; everything evil is base; therefore, something just is not evil."The six moods of the third figure are:
(1) that which concludes from universal affirmations a particular affirmation both directly and by conversion: "Everything just is honorable; [everything honorable is just;] everything just is good; therefore, something honorable is good and something good is honorable;"
(2) that which concludes from a particular and a universal affirmation a particular affirmation directly: "Something just is honorable; everything just is good; therefore, something honorable is good;"
(3) that which concludes a particular affirmation directly from a universal and a particular affirmation: "Everything just is honorable; something just is good; therefore, something honorable is good;"
(4) that which concludes a particular negation directly from a universal affirmation and a universal negation: "Everything just is honorable; nothing just is evil; therefore, something honorable is not evil;"
(5) that which concludes a particular negation directly from a particular affirmation and a universal negation: "Something just is honorable; [nothing just is evil;] therefore, something honorable is not evil;"
(6) that which concludes a particular negation directly from a universal affirmation and a particular negation: "Everything just is honorable; something just is not evil; therefore, something honorable is not evil."Whoever wants to know fully these figures of the categorical syllogism should read the book of Apuleius entitled Perihermenias where he will discover a more subtle treatment. Let us not be overcome with boredom because of the repetition of words, for once we distinguish and meditate on them with the Lord's aid they bring us on the broad path of understanding. Now in running order let us take up the hypothetical syllogisms.
13. There are seven moods of the hypothetical syllogism that come about as the result of some set of contingencies.
1) If it is day, it is light; it is day; therefore it is light.
2. If it is day, it is light; it is not light; therefore it is not day.
3. It is not both day and without light; it is day; therefore it is light.
4. It is either day or night; it is day; [therefore it is not night.]
5. It is either day or night; it is not night; therefore it is day.
6. It is not both day and without light; it is day; therefore it is not night.
7. It is not both day and night; it is not night; therefore it is day.If anyone wishes to know more about the moods of the hypothetical syllogism, he should read the book of Marius Victorinus called On the Hypothetical Syllogism. You should also know that Tullius Marcellus of Carthage dealt with categorical and hypothetical syllogisms, a matter discussed too broadly by various philosophers carefully [briefly] and subtly in seven books. In the first book he discussed the rule, as he himself says, of the dialectical art of syllogisms. He explained briefly in the second and third books what Aristotle published [discussed] on the categorical syllogism in many books; in his fourth and fifth books he brings together what the Stoics had discussed in numerous volumes on the hypothetical syllogisms; in the sixth book he discussed mixed [mystical sic] syllogisms, in the seventh, composite syllogisms. I have left this book for you to read.
14. Let us proceed from this to the most pleasant types of definitions which are so prominent that they can be called the obvious manifestations [greatest glory] of statements and some distinguishing marks [bright lights] of speech. The definition of definition is a brief statement including in its own signification the nature of each thing separated from the general class. This is accomplished in many ways and by many rules. The divisions of definitions: ousiotes, i.e. essential; ennoematice, i.e. notional; poeotes, i.e. qualitative; hypographice, i.e. descriptional; cata antilexin, i.e. substitutional; cata diaphoran, i.e. differential; cata metaphoran, i.e. by comparison; cat'apheresin tou enantiou, i.e., by negation of the contrary; cata typosin, i.e., by a particular image; os typos, i.e., likeness; cata ellipes olocleru homogenous, i.e. by lack of fullness of the same genus; cata epaenon, i.e. by praise; cata analogian, i.e. proportional; cata to pros ti, i.e., relational; cata aetiologian, i.e., causational.
Definitions:
1) ousiotes (essential) which is truly and properly definition, as "Man is a mortal rational animal capable of understanding and learning." This definition passing down through species and differentia arrives at what is essential and delineates what man is.
2) ennoematice (inferential) which we can call notional [notion], using a common, not a proper, term. This is always fashioned in the following way: "Man is a creature that is superior to other animals in the grasp and exercise of reason;" it does not tell what a man is, but what he does, as if some sign for knowledge had been set down. In this definition and in the rest, the notion of the thing presented is not an essential one, as is stated in that first definition. Because the first kind of definition is essential, it holds first place among all definitions.
3) poeotes (qualitative). This definition, by telling what the quality is, clearly shows what the thing is, e.g., "A man is one who has a strong mind, an ability in arts, and by knowledge of matters chooses what he ought to do or by censure rejects what is not beneficial." A man is described and defined by these qualities.
4) hypographice (descriptional). This type, by the addition of circumlocutions concerning words and deeds, declares what a thing is by description. If we want to define "luxurious," we say: "Luxurious means seeking an unessential, expensive, and burdensome way of life, overabundant in delights [in regard to delights], inclined to lust." This type of definition is more suited to orators than dialecticians because of its breadth. This likeness is set down [This is set down] in matters good and evil.
5) cata antilexin (substitutional). This definitions defines the word whose meaning is sought, by another simple and particular word. In some degree it states by one word the meaning set down in another, [as] "to grow quiet is to be silent." Likewise when we say a "boundary" is an "end" or define "destroyed" as "pillaged."
6) cata diaphoran (differential). When the difference between a king and a tyrant is in question, the assertion of difference defines each of them: "A king is moderate and temperate, a tyrant wicked and cruel."
7) cata metaphoran (by comparison). As Cicero says in the Topics, "The shore is where the wave ceases." This can be treated in several ways; to move, as in "The head is the citadel of the body;" for blame, "Riches: a deep purse for a brief life;" for praise, "Youth is the flower of life."
8) cata apheresin tou enantiou (by negation of the opposite of what is defined). "The good is what is not evil; the just is what is not unjust" and the like; these are so naturally tied together that one gains a logical understanding for the one by grasping the other. We should, however, use this type of definition when the opposite is known, for no one proves the known from the unknown. Belonging to this type are these definitions: "Substance is what is neither quality, quantity or other accidental." God can be defined by this type of definition. For although we cannot grasp in any way what God is, the subtraction of all existing things (what the Greeks call onta) supplies a knowledge of God to us by cutting off and removing things known, as if we were to say: "God is what is neither body nor any element nor animal nor mind nor sense nor intellect nor anything that can be grasped out of these." By subtracting these and the like as well we can define what God is.
9) cata typosin (by some image). "Aeneas is the son of Venus and Anchises." This is always used for individual items which the Greeks call atoma; it also appears in the following kind of statement in which one is ashamed or afraid to name something, as Cicero's "When those cutthroats obviously are describing me."
10) os typos (Latin, "like" "for example"). If one were to ask what an "animal" is and the answer would be "man." It is clearly not stated that man is the only animal, since there are countless others, but when "man" is stated, it defines "animal" by the example of "man," although many other creatures are set down under this term. The example quoted stated the matter under discussion, as a definition by its nature must.
11) cata ellipes ococlerou homogenous (by what is lacking of fullness of the same genus). If one asks what a "quarter" ["third"] is, he receives the reply, "That which lacks three-quarters of being a whole as."
12) cata epaenon (by praise). Cicero in the speech For Cluentius says, "The law is the mind and soul and counsel and decision of the state," and elsewhere, "Peace is quiet liberty." It appears in statements of blame which the Greeks call psogon, "Slavery is the worst of all evils, to be driven off not only by war but also by death."
13) cata analogian (proportional). This type occurs when a lesser thing is defined with a term for the greater thing. "Man is a lesser world." Cicero uses this type of definition in "They say an edict is a law that is in force for a year."
14)cata ton pros ti (relational). "A father is one who has a son, as a master is one who has a slave." Cicero says in the Rhetorica, "A genus is that which includes several species;" also, "A species is what is a sub= category of genus."
15) cata etiologion (causational). "Day is the sun above the earth, night the sun beneath the earth." We should know that the above-mentioned types of definitions are properly tied to commonplaces, since they are placed within certain arguments and in some works are discussed among commonplaces. Now let us come to commonplaces [the art of the commonplace] which are the bases of discussions, the sources of statements of opinion, [and] the starting points of modes of expression.15. The division of commonplaces or of passages from which arguments are drawn: some are inherent in the subject under discussion — some are said to be connected and are known to derive to some degree from other subjects — others are regarded as extrinsic. Arguments which were in the subject under discussion — from the whole — from its parts — from meaning.
Argument from the whole: when a definition is attached to the matter in question, as Cicero says, "Glory is the praise of deeds well done and a reputation for great merits in the republic."
An argument from parts: when the defendant either denies the deed or says it was justly done.
An argument from meaning: when some proof is drawn out from the meaning of a term, as Cicero says, "I was looking for, I said, a consul, a consul whom I could not find in this eunuch." Arguments closely connected are those known to be drawn to some degree from other subjects: conjugate — from genus — from species — likeness, difference, contraries, adjuncts, antecedents, consequents, contradictions, cause, effect, comparison of greater to lesser, of lesser to greater, of equal to equal.
Argument from conjugates: when there is a change from noun to verb as Cicero says of Verres that "He swept (everrisse) the province," or noun from verb as "robber" from "rob" — a noun from noun, as Terence says, "The undertaking of madmen (amentium), not lovers (amantium)" — if the end of one term differs by being fashioned in another type of word formation.
Argument from genus: when a statement is drawn from the same genus, as Vergil says, "A woman is always a shifty and changeable thing."
Argument from species: when the species gives credence to the general point, "Not thus did the Phrygian shepherd enter Lacedaemon."
Argument from likeness: when matters like others are brought out, as Vergil says, "Supply me with weapons: none shall fly from my right hand in vain against the Rutuli which were fixed in Greeks' bodies on the plains of Troy."
Argument from differences: when some things are separated by differences, as Vergil says, "You do not see the horses of Diomedes and the chariot of Achilles."
Argument from contraries: when contrary matters are contrasted to one another, as Vergil says, "Is it right that ships made by mortal hands have immortality and Aeneas in his certainty wander through uncertain perils?"
Argument from consequents: when something inevitably follows the stated circumstance, as Vergil says, "Not this violence in our hearts, not such great pride in the conquered."
Argument from antecedents: when something is proved from known events, as Cicero says in For Milo, "Since he did not hesitate to disclose what he thought, can you doubt what he did?"
Argument from contradictions: when the objection raised is removed by some contradiction, as Cicero says, "Therefore he who had wanted to kill you at home is not only freed from such danger, but marked out with highest honor."
Argument from like notions: when it is shown by a comparison what will take place from each event; "If they drive us out, they think nothing will be able to prevent them from putting all the West completely beneath their yoke."
Argument from causes: when each circumstance is treated according to common practice, as Terence says, "I have long feared you, Davus, that you would do what the common run of slaves often does, that you might fool me with tricks."
Argument from effects: when something is approved as a result of past actions, as Vergil says, "Fear proves ignoble souls."
Argument from comparison: when by comparison of persons or causes the reason for a decision is fashioned by implication, as Vergil says, "You can draw Aeneas out from under the hands of the Greeks; is it unlawful that we give some aid in turn to the Rutuli?"
16. Arguments drawn from removed circumstances are called by the Greeks atechnos, i.e., lacking skill: like evidence. Evidence arises from: persons the authority of nature the authority of circumstances, which has eight modes: talents, resources, age, luck, skill, experience, necessity, and the meeting of chance circumstance the words and actions of our ancestors torture. Evidence is everything that is drawn from some external source to gain credence. A person who has a weight of evidence to gain credence is not just anyone, but must be praiseworthy because of the decency of his moral character. Natural authority comprises the greatest excellence. There are many kind of evidence that carry authority: talent, riches, age, luck, skill, experience, necessity, the meeting of fortuitous circumstances. Credence is sought from the words and actions of our ancestors by recalling the words and deeds of the ancients. Credence is provided by torture, after which we believe that no one would lie. The matters treated under circumstances do not need definitions because they are obvious from their names.
17. Remember that commonplaces indeed offer arguments commonly to orators, dialecticians, poets, and lawyers. When they prove something in particular they are of use to rhetoricians, poets, lawyers, but when they discuss matters in general they serve philosophers [dialecticians]. This marvelous compendium encompasses the versatility and variety the human intellect displays in its search for meaning. This kind of work envelopes the free and voluntary intellect, for wherever the intellect turns, whatever it considers, it must fall upon some of these commonplaces which have been discussed.
18. We think that it will be useful to summarize by whose labor these matters can be spoken of in Latin, so that these authors will not fail to achieve their fame and so that the task will be recognized by us and grant the authors their due. Victorinus the orator translated the Isagoge; Boethius, that outstanding man, published a commentary on it in five books. Victorinus also translated the Categories and wrote a commentary on it in eight books. Victorinus also translated the Perihermenias into Latin; the patrician Boethius wrote a point by point commentary on it in six books. Apuleius of Madaura wrote about the hypothetical syllogism; Marius Victorinus also carefully distinguished fifteen types of definitions. Cicero translated Aristotle's Topics into Latin. Victorinus, who loved and studied Latin authors, wrote a commentary on Cicero's translation in four books. I thought it appropriate to collect these authoritative books not unsuitably into one manuscript so that whatever pertains to dialectic my be included in one codex. We have had the many commentaries on the different texts, since they are lengthy, written down in separate books and we have left them to you with the Lord's aid in one collection.
19. We have surveyed the liberal arts, insofar as we have judged them useful to beginners, to enable them to reach the entrance of the disciplines through open doors as it were. Although it is difficult to enter and learn these disciplines, the toil of the study of elements persists until one sees what sweetness they have; but when scholars have reached the stage of mature competence, each one regards it as delightful to have endured the troubles of his endeavor. We now turn to the illustrious divisions of these arts in which Greece is correctly thought to surpass the Latin language. We will try not so much to explain these briefly as to sketch them. For why should what is found clear and plain in the original authors be discussed as it were more distinctively and fully?
20. We must now consider, however, since we have arrived at this point, what we touched on in the rhetorical section, namely, the difference between an art and a discipline, so that difference in the terms in their confusion not confound the reader. Plato and Aristotle, worthy teachers of secular letters, considered the difference between and art and a discipline in the following way: an art involves working in an accustomed state with things that have the possibility of being other than they are; a discipline, however, is concerned with those things that cannot turn out differently or other than they are. We assume that this means matters concerning worldly learning, since only divine letters cannot deceive, for they hold the unmovable personal authority of truth. We have heard that Felix Capella wrote a kind of anthology on the disciplines to enable the uneducated brothers to become acquainted with such literature. Nevertheless, up to now we have been able to acquire all but a small amount. But it is better for you that those selections not disappear at some time and that these remaining, although not many, be soon available to those who are interested. Now let us begin with mathematics.
21. Mathematics is a science that we can call in Latin theoretical since it considers quantities in the abstract. We define as abstract a quantity that is separated mentally from matter or other accidents, for example, equal and unequal or other things of this sort treated by calculation alone [or other things which are treated by calculation alone). This science of mathematics is divided as follows: arithmetic, music, geometry, astronomy. Arithmetic is the study of quantity (that which can be counted) in itself. Music is the study that discusses numbers which have a relationship to those which are found in tones. Geometry is the study of stationary magnitudes and shapes. Astronomy is the study of the movements of the stars in heaven. It considers and investigates by reason all configurations and movements of the stars in relation to one another and to the earth. We will discuss [expatiate on] these subjects a little more fully in their turn to display their excellence.
22. Now let us discuss the expression "disciplines." Disciplines are those pursuits that are independent of opinion and therefore never deceive; they are called disciplines because they are obliged to observe their own rules. Our attention to these disciplines neither nor are they diminished . They do not undergo any [other] changes, but remain strong in themselves and preserve their rules with unchangeable firmness. Frequent reflection on the disciplines sharpens our understanding, clears the darkness of ignorance, and leads, with the Lord's help and soundness of mind, to theoretical speculation. Josephus, the most learned of the Hebrews, in the first book of his Antiquities, chapter nine, says that Abraham first brought arithmetic and astronomy to the Egyptians. The Egyptians, a people of sharp intellect, took up the seeds from him, and widely cultivated the other disciplines for themselves. Our holy Fathers properly persuaded men of a scholarly disposition to read these sciences since they turn our appetite from carnal things and make us desire what with the Lord's aid we can see with the heart alone. It is, therefore, time to discuss these disciplines individually and briefly.
IV. Arithmetic
1. Secular writers maintain that arithmetic is the first mathematical discipline because arithmetic is essential to explain the excellences of music, geometry, and astronomy. For example, the relation of the single to the double that music involves needs arithmetic; astronomy also requires arithmetic since it considers the numbers of positions in the movement of the stars. Arithmetic, however, can exist without music, geometry, or astronomy. Arithmetic is the source and mother of these other disciplines. Pythagoras regarded this science so highly that he remarked that everything created by God has number and measure. He said that some things were fashioned in motion and other things in place in such a way however that only those disciplines of which we have spoken received substance. I believe this, and take my start as many philosophers have done from that statement of the prophet, that God arranged everything according to number, measure, and weight.
2. This section deals with discrete quantity which produces the types of numbers joined to one another by no common boundary. For 5 is not tied to 10 by any mutual union through any common boundary nor 6 to 4 and 7 to 3. Arithmetic receives its name because its special subject is number. Number is a multitude made up of units, as 3, 5, 10, 20, and so forth. The goal of arithmetic is to teach us the nature of number in the abstract and those things that are accidental to it; for example evenness, oddness, and so forth.
3. [...] An even number is one that can be divided into two equal parts, as 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, etc. An odd number is one that cannot be divided into two equal parts as 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, etc. A multiple of an even number can be divided into two equal parts as far as the unit, for example, 64 are [is] divided in 32, 32 into 16, 16 into 8, 8 into 4, 4 into 2, 2 into 1 and 1. An even multiple of an odd number can be equally divided only once into two equal parts, as 10 into 5, 14 into 7, 18 into 9, and the like. A multiple of an odd and an even number can be divided in several ways according to the quality of the parts; not, however, that it may reach unity: for example, 24 into 2 times 12, 12 into 2 times 6, 6 into 2 times 3, and one cannot go further. Among the odd numbers, a prime and simple number is one that can have unity as its only divisor; for example, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, and the like. A secondary and composite number is one that not only takes unity as a divisor but also another number, for example, 9, 15, 21, and the like. An intermediate number is one that in some way seems to be prime simple and in another way secondary and composite, for example 9 when it is compared to 25 is prime and simple because it does not have a number in common except unity; if it is compared to 15 it is secondary and composite since there is a common factor for it beyond unity, that is the number 3 which measures 9 as 3 times and 15 and as 5 times 3.
4. [...] An overperfect number is one that derives from even numbers. Although it is even, it seems to have extra divisions in its quantity; half of 12 are [is] 6, a sixth 2, a quarter 3, a third 4, a twelfth 1; all in sum [summed up] are 16. A deficient number is also even but the sum of its amount is less than its factors; e.g., half of 8 is 4, a quarter 2, an eighth 1; and these factors together equal 7. A perfect number also derives from the even numbers. All its factors added together are equal to itself; as half of 6 is 3, a third 2, a sixth 1, and all these factors taken together make the same number 6.
5. [...] A number considered in itself is said to be without any relation as 3, 4, 5, 6, and others like them. A number is considered relatively, i.e. in relation to others, for example 4 to 2 is said to be double and multiple and so 6 to 3 and 8 to 4 and 10 to 5; also 3 to 1 is triple, 6 to 2, 9 to 3, etc. Numbers are said to be equal that are equal in quantity, for example, 2 to 2, 3 to 3, 10 to 10, 100 to 100, etc. Unequal numbers are those that when compared to one another show inequality as 3 to 2, 4 to 3, 5 to 4, 10 to 6; and in general it is called unequal when greater is compared to less or less to greater. A greater number is one that contains both the lesser number to which it is compared and something more, for example the number 5 is greater than the number 3, because the number 5 contains the number 3 as well as 2 other parts in addition. A multiple number is one that contains the lesser number 2, 3, 4 or more times, for example 2 compared to 1 is double, 3 to 1 triple, 4 to 1 quadruple, etc. On the other hand a submultiple number is one that is contained within a multiple number 2, 3, 4, or multiple times, for example 1 is contained twice in 2, three times in 3, four times in 4, five times in 5, and many times in other numbers. A superparticular number is a larger number that contains within [below] itself the lesser number with which it is compared, as well as one unit of it, for example 3 compared to 2 contains in itself 2 and another 1, which is the half of 2; and 4 when compared to 3, contains in itself 3 and another 1, which is a third of 3; also 5 compared to 4 has in itself 4 and another 1, which is a fourth part of 4, etc. A subsuperparticular number is a lesser number that is contained in the larger number with another unit either half, third, fourth, or fifth, for example 2 to 3, 3 to 4, 4 to 5, etc. A superpartient number is one that contains in itself the entire lesser number and in addition two other units or three or four or five more, for example 5 compared to 3 has in itself 3 and besides two other units; 7 compared to 4 has in itself 4 and three other units; 9 compared to 5 has in itself 5 and another 4 units. A subsuperpartient number is one that is contained in the superpartient number with 2, 3 or more other units, for example 3 is contained in 5 with two other units; 4 is contained in 7 with three additional units; 5 in 9 with four units. A multiple superparticular number is one that when compared to a number less than itself contains in itself the entire lesser number in a multiple with an additional unit, for example 5 compared to 2 contains in itself twice 2 with [and] one unit; 9 compared to 4 contains in itself twice 4 and an additional unit. A submultiple superparticular number is one that when it is compared to a number larger than itself is contained by the larger in a multiple with one additional unit, for example 2 compared to 5 is contained in it twice with one unit left over. A multiple superpartient number is one that when compared with a number less than itself contains it as a multiple with some parts left over, for example 8 compared to 3 contains in itself twice 3 with a remainder of 2, and 14 compared to 6 contains in itself twice 6 with a remainder of 2; 16 compared to 7 contains it twice with a remainder of 2; 18 compared to 8 contains in itself twice 8 and a remainder of 2. A submultiple superpartient number is one that when it is compared with a number larger than itself, is contained by it in a multiple with some additional units, for example 3 compared to 8 is contained twice with a remainder of 2; 4 compared to 15 is contained 3 times with a remainder of 3.
6. [...] A discrete number is one that consists of separate units for example 3 as distinct from 4, 5 from 6 and so forth. A continuous number is one that is contained by joined units, for example 3, if it is considered in a magnitude, i.e. in a line or a plane or a solid is called continuous; likewise 4 and 5. A linear number is one that starting from unity is written in a line up to infinity, for which reasons alpha is set down to describe lines because this letter signifies 1 among the Greeks... A plane number is one that is bounded not only by length but also by height [breadth], as a triangular number, a square number, a pentagonal number, a circular, number, and others that are always enclosed in a plane.
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7. Remember that this discipline is superior to the others because, as we said before, it needs none of the other disciplines. The disciplines that follow require the discipline of arithmetic for their existence, as the excellence of arithmetic demonstrates. Among the Greeks Nicomachus diligently explained this subject. His work was previously [first] translated into Latin by Apuleius of Madaura and was again translated into Latin by the patrician Boethius for the Roman reader. Anyone who uses these works often will most certainly be filled with the light of reason insofar as mankind has the capacity for it. To a large extent this discipline dominates our lives, since we learn the hours from it, we reckon the course of the months by it, we recognize the course of the returning year, we are saved from confusion by number. Take away calculation from the age and everything is plunged into blind disorder. A man who does not understand reckoning does not differ from the other animals. This is as [so] glorious a subject as it is necessary for our lives; for through it [through this very thing] we clearly learn what we possess and, after proper accountings [accounting], we know how much our expenditures are. Number gives order to all things; through number we learn what we must do first and what we must do second.
8. If you look carefully for the basis of great matters even the miracles of the Lord become susceptible to numerical explanation. The first number pertains to the one God, as we read in the Pentateuch: "Hear O Israel! The Lord is our God, the Lord alone!" The second number refers to the two Testaments, as it says in the Book of Kings: "And he made in the oracle two cherubim of olive tree, of ten cubits in height." Finally, the sweet reward of all our hope rests in the holy Trinity, not because it is subject to number, but because shows the power of its majesty displays the usefulness of number. Indeed, unity is understood to be in the essence of the divine, but Trinity is in the persons. For it says in the Epistle of John: "There are three things that bear witness: the Spirit, and the water, and the blood." Concerning the four evangelists we also read in Ezechiel: "Within it were figures resembling four living creatures." The fifth number refers to the five books of Moses, as it says in Paul: "In the church I had rather speak five words with my understanding." On the sixth day God made man, in His own image and likeness. Indeed we call it the Holy Spirit itself and believe that it is sevenfold; number is necessary to enable us to understand the highest and most omnipotent matters. Now we will take up music which is sweetness in its name and in its particular excellence.
V. Music
1. A certain Gaudentius writing on music said that Pythagoras discovered the elements of this subject from the sound of hammers and by the striking of taut strings. That very learned man, Mutianus, translated this work into Latin. The quality of the work undertaken indicates his talent. Clement of Alexandria, a priest, in his book Against the Pagans, said that music took its beginning from the Muses and explains carefully why the Muses were invented. For [And] the Muses themselves are named apo tu maso, i.e., from seeking, since through them, as the ancients believed, the power of song and the harmony of voice derived. Censorinus in a work presented to Quintus Cerellius (On his Birthday) discussed the discipline of music; nor should his section on mathematics be neglected either. It is useful to enable the depth of the mind to store this information by frequent consideration.
2. The discipline of music therefore extends through all acts of our life in the following way. First, if we obey the commands of the Creator, and we keep with pure minds the rules set out by him, our speech and the pulse of our veins express the excellences of harmony through musical rhythms. Music indeed is the discipline of proper harmony; if we live properly we are always associated with such a discipline. When we are wicked, we do not have music. Furthermore, the heaven, the earth and everything that takes place in it according to divine economy, do not lack the discipline of music. For [And] Pythagoras bears witness that this world was founded through music and can be given order by it.
3. Religion itself is tied to music, for example there is the decachord of the Ten Commandments, the twang of the harp, the drums, the melody of the organ, and the sound of cymbals. The Psalter itself also is certainly named like [for its likeness] to the musical instrument, because it contains the sweet and pleasing harmony of heavenly excellence.
4. Now let us consider [discuss] the divisions of music, as they have been handed down from our ancestors. Music is a discipline that deals with numbers, which relate to qualities which are found in sounds, as double, triple, quadruple and the like indicate the relationship of one thing to another.
5. Music has three parts: harmonics—rhythmics—metrics. Harmonics is the musical discipline that distinguishes high and low pitch in sounds. Rhythmics is the discipline that considers the coming together of words [in the joining of words] whether sounds fit together well or badly. Metrics is that discipline which discovers the measurement [measurements] of the different meters, such as the heroic, the iambic, and the elegiac, etc.
6. There are three kinds of musical instruments: percussion—strings—wind. Percussion instruments include bronze and silver hand-bells, and other types that give forth sweet tinkling sound when struck by a rigid piece of metal. Stringed instruments are those that have skillfully tied strings which will sweetly delight the ears when struck with an applied plectrum. Among these are different kinds of harps. Wind instruments are those which are set in motion to create the sound when filled with breath. Among these are trumpets, reeds, organ, bagpipes, etc.
7. It now remains for us to speak about harmonies. A harmony is the modulation of a low pitch to a high pitch or of a high pitch to a low pitch, creating euphony in a voice or in a wind instrument or in percussion [or in percussion or in a wind instrument].
There are six harmonies: (1) the diatessaron; (2) the diapente; (3) the diapason; (4) the diapason and diatessaron; (5) the diapeson and diapente; (6) the disdiapason.
1) A diatessaron is a harmony that consists of a 4:3 ratio and is made up of four sounds from which it receives its name.
2) The diapente is a harmony that consists of a 3:2 ratio and is made up of five sounds.
3) The diapason is a harmony that is also called the octave; it is made up of a 2:1 ratio, i.e. double, and consists of eight sounds from which it receives its name either octave or diapason because among the ancients the harp consisted of eight strings; therefore it is called the diapason, consisting as it were of all sounds.
4) The diapason and diatessaron is a harmony that consists of a ratio 24:8; it is made up of eleven sounds.
5) The diapason and diapente is a harmony that consists of a ratio 3:1; it is made up of twelve sounds.
6) The disdiapason, i.e. the double diapason, is a harmony that is in a ratio of 4:1; it is made up of fifteen sounds.8. The tone, which consists of the pitch or dominant tone quality of the voice, is a distinguishing characteristic and quantity of the whole aggregate of sounds. There are fifteen tones: hypodorian, hypoiastian, hypophrygian, hypoaeolian, hypolydian, dorian, iastian, phrygian, aeolian, lydian, hyperdorian, hyperiastian, hyperphrygian, hyperaeolian, hyperlydian.
(1) The hypodorian tone is the lowest of all in pitch; therefore it is also called the bottom tone.
(2) The hypoiastian is a half tone higher than the hypodorian.
(3) The hypophrygian is a half tone higher than the hypoiastian, and a full tone higher than the hypodorian.
(4) The hypoaeolian is a half tone higher than the hypophrygian, a full tone higher than the hypoiastian, and a tone and a half higher than the hypodorian.
(5) The hypolydian is a half tone higher than the hypoaeolian, a tone higher than the hypophrygian, and a tone and a half higher than the hypoiastian, and two tones higher than the hypodorian.
(6) The dorian is a half tone higher than the hypolydian, a tone higher than the hypoaeolian, a tone and a half higher than the hypophrygian, two tones higher than the hypoiastian, two and a half tones higher than the hypodorian, i.e., the interval of the diatessaron.
(7) The iastian is a half tone higher than the dorian, a tone higher than the hypolydian, a tone and a half higher than the hypoaeolian, two tones higher than the hypophrygian, two and a half tones higher than the hypoiastian, i.e., the interval of the diatessaron, and three tones higher than the hypodorian.
(8) The phrygian is a half tone higher than the iastian, a tone higher than the dorian, one and a half tones higher than the hypolydian, two tones higher than the hypoaeolian, two and a half tones higher than the hypophrygian, i.e. the interval of the diatessaron, three tones higher than the hypoiastian, three and a half tones higher than the hypodorian, i.e. the interval of the diapente.
(9) The aeolian is a half tone higher than the phrygian, one tone higher than the iastian, one and a half tones higher than the dorian, two tones higher than the hypolydian, two and a half tones higher than the hypoaeolian, i.e. the interval of the diatessaron, three tones higher than the hypophrygian, three and a half tones higher than the hypoiastian, i.e. the interval of the diapente, four tones higher than the hypodorian.
(10) The lydian is a half tone higher than the aeolian, one tone higher than the phrygian, one and a half tones higher than the iastian, two tones higher than the dorian, two and a half tones higher than the hypolydian, i.e. the interval of the diatessaron, three tones higher than the hypoaeolian, three and a half tones higher than the hypophrygian, i.e. the interval of the diapente, four tones higher than the hypoiastian, four and a half higher than the hypodorian.
(11) The hyperdorian is a half tone higher than the lydian, one tone higher than the aeolian, one and a half tones higher than the phrygian, two tones higher than the iastian, two and a half tones higher than the dorian, i.e., the interval of the diatessaron, three tones higher than the hypolydian, three and a half tones higher than the hypoaeolian, i.e. the interval of the diapente, four tones higher than the hypophrygian, four and a half tones higher than the hypoiastian, five tones higher than the hypodorian.
(12) The hyperiastian is a half tone higher than the hyperdorian, one tone higher than the lydian, one and a half tones higher than the aeolian, two tones higher than the phrygian, two and a half tones higher than the iastian, i.e. the interval of the diatessaron, three tones higher than the dorian, three and a half tones higher than the hypolydian, i.e. the interval of the diapente, four tones higher than the hypoaeolian, four and a half tones higher than the hypophrygian, five tones higher than the hyperiastian, five and half tones higher than the hypodorian.
(13) The hyperphrygian is a half tone higher than the hyperiastian, one tone higher than the hyperdorian, one and a half tones higher than the lydian, two tones higher than the aeolian, two and a half tones higher than the phrygian, i.e. the interval of the diatessaron, three tones higher than the iastian, three and a half tones higher than the dorian, i.e. the interval of the diapente, four tones higher than the hypolydian, four and a half tones higher than the hypoaeolian, five tones higher than the hypophrygian, five and a half tones higher than the hypoiastian, six tones higher than the hypodorian, i.e. the interval of the diapason.
(14) The hyperaeolian is a half tone higher than the hyperphrygian, one tone higher than the hyperiastian, one and a half tones higher than the hyperdorian, two tones higher than the lydian, two and a half tones higher than the aeolian, i.e. the interval of the diatessaron, four tones higher than the dorian, four and a half tones higher than the hypolydian, five tones higher than the hypoaeolian five and a half tones higher than the hypophrygian, six tones higher than the hypoiastian, i.e. the interval of the diapason, six and a half tones higher than the hypodorian.
(15) The hyperlydian is the last and highest of all. It is a half tone higher than the hyperaeolian, one tone higher than the hyperphrygian, two tones higher than the hyperdorian, two and a half tones higher than the lydian, i.e. the interval of the diatessaron, three tones higher than the aeolian, three and a half tones higher than the phrygian, i.e. the interval of the diapente, four tones higher than the iastian, four and a half tones higher than the dorian, five tones higher than the hypolydian, five and a half higher than the hypoaeolian, six tones higher than the hyperphrygian, i.e. the interval of the diapason, six and a half tones higher than the hypoiastian, seven tones higher than the hypodorian.It is clear from this that the hyperlydian is the highest of all tones and is seven tones higher than the hypodorian, the lowest of all. As Varro reminds us, their excellence is useful to calm the aroused spirits; they also attract beasts as well as serpents, birds and dolphins to hear their harmony.
9. Leaving aside as fictions the lyre of Orpheus and the song of the Sirens, what shall we say of David? By the knowledge of the most salutary harmonies he drew unclean spirits from Saul and in a novel way through his hearing restored sanity, an achievement the doctors were unable to accomplish with herbal cures. They say that Aesclepiades, whom the ancients considered a very skilled doctor, restored a certain madman to his former sanity [to his own nature] through harmony. Many miracles among sick men are said to be accomplished by this discipline. As we mentioned above, the heaven itself is said to revolve in sweet harmony. In short, according to the economy of the Creator, all heavenly and earthly events are subject to this discipline.
10. This pleasing and useful knowledge raises our understanding to the heights and pleases our ear with sweet harmony. Alypius, Euclid, and Ptolemy among the Greeks as well as others have produced laudable instruction on this subject. Among the Latin writers Albinus wrote a book on this subject with summary brevity. I recall that we had this book in our library at Rome and read it eagerly. If by chance this work has been destroyed by the barbarian invasion, you have Gaudentius, and if you should read him with careful attention he will open the doors to this discipline for you. Apuleius of Madaura wrote in Latin on the elements of this subject. Father Augustine also wrote six books On Music in which he showed that the human voice can have naturally rhythmical sounds and harmony capable of modulation [modulated] in long and short syllables. Censorinus also has a careful discussion on accents which are very important to our voice; [saying] he said these accents belong to the discipline of music. I have left you his work transcribed among other works.
11. Next is geometry, the theoretical description of figures, and also the physical means by which philosophers teach; they, to praise this method of teaching, testify that their Jove used geometry in his own works. I do not know whether this should be considered as praise or blame, since they say in their lies that Jove draws in the heavens what they draw on colored sand. But if for our salvation we associate this idea with the Creator and omnipotent Lord, it is possible for this thought [from this thought] to agree with the truth, for the holy Trinity uses geometry [is geometry], since, if we may express it thus, it [divinity] has endowed the creatures [that which] it has brought [brings] into being with various species and shapes, and with awesome power it assigns the movements of the stars and makes to move in their assigned orbits the stars that move and established those which are fixed in place. The essence of this discipline is organization and perfection.
VI. Geometry
1. Geometry in Latin refers to the measurement of the earth; some say it is so named because Egypt was divided among its own lords by various forms of this discipline. In earlier times the teachers of this discipline were called measurers. But Varro, the most learned of the Latin writers, offers the following reason for the name. First the measurement of the earth gave useful peace to wandering peoples [who disagreed] by setting down boundary stones. Then the circle of the whole year was apportioned out by the measurement of the months. As a result, the months themselves were so named because they measure the years. But after these things were discovered, scholars were moved to study intangible phenomena, and began to ask how far the moon was from the earth and the sun from the moon and how far it was to the top of the heavens. He reports that the most learned geometricians arrived at the measurements of these distances. Then he also relates that the measurement of the whole earth was arrived at by a praiseworthy reasoning; thus it came about that the discipline received the name geometry [of geometry] that it bears over the course of the ages. In the book that he wrote to Quintus Cerellius, Censorinus describes with careful accuracy the size of the heavens and the extent of the earth according to the number of stades. Anyone who studies this book will learn many of the mysteries of philosophy in a brief reading.
2. Geometry is the discipline of unmoved magnitudes and figures. Geometry is divided into plane figures—numerable magnitudes—rational and irrational magnitudes—and solid figures. Plane figures are those that are enclosed by length and breadth. A numerable magnitude is one that can be divided by arithmetic numbers.
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3. This discussion deals with the discipline of geometry as a whole and in its parts, and the multiplicity of figures that exist on earth or in the heavens. There are fine Greek writers on this subject, including Euclid, Apollonius, Archimedes, and others. Boethius, an outstanding man, published [presented] a Latin translation of Euclid. A diligent and careful reading of this work will make the information [facts] presented above available in a clear and distinct manner.
4. There remains astronomy. If we seek after the knowledge of astronomy with a pure and moderate mind, it enlightens [fills] our understanding, as the ancients say, with great clarity. It is such a wonderful thing to approach the heavens mentally and to examine that entire celestial structure using rational investigation, and by theoretical speculation explore great hidden mysteries. The universe itself according to some is joined together in a spherical form in such a way that its circumference encloses the different forms of objects. Seneca wrote a book with a discussion suitable to philosophers whose title is On the Shape of the World. And we have left [are leaving] this same book for you to read.
VII. Astronomy
1. Astronomy means the law of the stars. They can neither remain at rest or move except in the way in which their Creator arranged them, unless they are changed by divine will when some miracle occurs, as Joshua is said to have ordered [asked] the sun to stand still in Gabaon and a star was shown to the wise men which announced to the world the coming of the Lord bringing salvation; also in the passion of the Lord Christ the sun was made dark for three hours and the like. These events are called miracles because wondrous things happen against the usual rules of circumstance. For, as the geometers say, those which are fixed in the heaven are borne along; the planets, that is the wanderers, move, but confine their movements by definite rule.
2. Astronomy is, as we have already said, the study of the movements of the heavenly stars and their configurations. It investigates the regular motions of the stars in relation to each other and in relation to the earth.
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Spherical position is the position of a heavenly body on the celestial sphere. Spherical motion is that by which a sphere moves spherically [the sphere properly moves]. Eastern direction is that direction from which some stars rise. Western direction is that direction in which some stars set in our view. Northern direction is that direction which the sun reaches when the days are longer. Southern direction is that direction which the sun reaches when the nights are longer. The hemisphere that is above the earth is that [the] part of the sky which we can see completely. The hemisphere under the earth, as they say, cannot be seen as long as it is under the earth. The orbital number [number of the orbits] of the stars indicates how much time each star requires to complete its orbit whether in its right ascension or its declination. The precession or forward movement of the stars is what the Greeks call propadismon, i.e. when a star seems to carry [drive] its regular motion and goes somewhat beyond its usual path. The backward motion or regression of the stars is what the Greek call hypopadismon or anapodismon, i.e. when the star in carrying out its motion seems to be moving backward at the same time. The Greeks call the pause of the stars stirigmon because stars, although always in motion, yet [nevertheless] at certain places seem to stand still. Varro in the book that he wrote On Astrology says stars are named from standing still. The correction of a computation by addition occurs whenever astronomers add a calculation to a calculation according to the rules of astronomy. The correction of a computation by subtraction occurs when astronomers make a calculation according to the rules of astronomy and judge that a calculation must be subtracted from the computation. The size of the sun, moon and earth is dealt with to show that the sun is larger than the earth and the earth larger than the moon by a certain amount. An eclipse of the sun occurs as often as the moon itself appears to us on the thirtieth day and the sun is hidden from us by it, and an eclipse of the moon occurs whenever the moon comes into the shadow of the earth.
3. Men have written books in both languages on the discipline of astronomy; among them Ptolemy is regarded as preeminent among the Greeks. He published two books on the subject, the one of which he called the Lesser, the other the Greater Astronomy. He also set up the canons in which the movements of the stars are found. It seems to me useful to know the latitudes, to understand distance time, and the movement of the moon, to indicate their value in determining the date of Easter and the eclipses of the sun. Now these latitudes are like seven lines drawn east to west. In the regions these lines mark off where a variety of human and animal life appears. These latitudes are named for some famous places: (1) Meroe; (2) Syene; (3) Catachora, i.e. Africa; (4) Rhodes; (5) Hellespont; (6) Mesopontum; (7) Borysthenes. Sundials also which yet reckon by the brightness of the sun are set up according to certain rules that depend on the various latitudes. Earlier writers — Ptolemy in particular — usefully investigated this matter.
4. An additional benefit we should not overlook is the useful information this discipline provides about the right time for sailing, for plowing, the dog-star of summer, and the dangerous rains of autumn. The Lord gave some excellence to each of his creations which [so that] we may recognize [it may be recognized] without spiritual harm from its own nature. But other things that are connected with the knowledge of the stars, i.e. knowledge of the future, certainly run contrary to our belief and should be ignored as if they had never been written. On this subject the learned Father Basil in the sixth book of those he called the Hexameron dealt with these matters cautiously and diligently, and removed cares of this sort from the minds of men by holy argument. We recommended this work highly at the beginning of our discussion the Octateuch. Father Augustine in Book 2 of On Christian Learning also reminds us that this belief is related to the dangerous error of those who foolishly weave spells of the fates [foolish facts]. Consequently, if such a popular belief is not understood, it receives just and proper contempt. Varro, a careful writer, in his volume on Geometry compared the shape of the world to an elongated sphere, making its form like that of the egg which is round in its latitude but oblong in its length. However [But] it will be sufficient for us to know as much of this part [art] as Holy Scripture contains, because it is foolish to follow human reason in this matter on which we know and have as much divine teaching as is useful to us.
Now that we have completed the discussion of secular teaching, it is clear that these disciplines bring considerable usefulness to our understanding of divine law, as some of the holy Fathers also point out.
Conclusion
1. I believe that with the Lord's aid we have fulfilled our promises to the best of our ability. Let us consider why this arrangement of the disciplines led up to the stars. The obvious purpose was to direct our mind, which has been dedicated to secular wisdom and cleansed by the exercise of the disciplines, from earthly things and to place it in a praiseworthy fashion in the divine structure.
2. Some have been led astray by the beauty and brilliance of the shining stars, and eagerly seek reasons for their own destruction. In their mental blindness they tripped over the motions of the stars and through dangerous calculations which are called astrology (mathesis) they were sure that they could foresee the course of events. Not only men of our own times, but also Plato, Aristotle, and other men of high intelligence, who are motivated by the truth in these particular matters, condemned, in full agreement, astrologers, saying that the only result of such a belief would be confusion. If the human race were forced by its birth to actions, why would good behavior gain praise or evil behavior come under the punishment of laws? And although these men were not dedicated to heavenly wisdom, they nevertheless, to bear witness to the truth, rightly attacked errors of those of whom the Apostle says: "You are observing days and months; I fear for you lest perhaps I have labored among you in vain." The Lord gives fuller command on this subject in Deuteronomy: "Let there not be found among you anyone who immolates his son or daughter in the fire nor a fortune teller, soothsayer, charmer, diviner, or caster of spells, nor one who consults ghosts or seeks oracles from the dead. Anyone who does such things is an abomination to the Lord your God."
3. Let us who truly desire to reach the heavens by the use of our mental faculties believe that God has arranged everything according to his will. Let us reject and condemn the vanities of this world. Let us, as we stated in the first book, look through the books of Divine Scripture, keeping a strict order. For by referring everything to the glory of the Creator, we may usefully bring to the mysteries on high that understanding those men have vainly sought in trying to gain human praise. As blessed Augustine and other most learned Fathers say, secular writings should not be rejected. It is right however, as Divine Scripture says, to "meditate on the law day and night," because from time to time we gain from secular letters commendable knowledge of some matters, but from divine letters we gain eternal life.
4. Anyone fired with love for heaven and stripped of earthly desires, who wishes to look at the excellences on high should read the Apocalypse of St. John. Fixed in contemplation of it, he will know the Lord Christ who by his providence conceived so many marvelous works, arranged them rationally, completed them with his excellence, and supports them now with the divine spirit, frightens them by his power, controls them by his faithfulness; incomprehensible, ineffable, and known more fully to no one else than to himself. He will also recognize that the Lord sits on his majestic throne, advises the churches through his holy angels, threatens the evil with punishment, promises rewards to the good, and is reverently worshipped with the greatest awe by all the elders, the archangels and the army of the entire heavenly host; and it is their particular and specific duty to sing in harmony with eternal unwearied reference the glory of the holy Trinity. He also knows this world is ruled by the Lord's sway, and, at the end of the world, when the Lord wishes, it will be changed for the better. The dead will rise when the angels sound their trumpets, and the human race which has been buried in long infirmity will be restored in a new life. He is terrible and fearsome; after destroying the son of iniquity he will come with thunder and lightning before him to judge the world. He will reveal his powers which in his first coming he did not show everywhere because of his future plan. The reader will know afterwards that the Church, freed from such great labors and calamities, will rejoice forever with the Lord whose justice will condemn those who followed the devil's justice. Truly he will be filled with great exultation since he will be perfected by a vision of these things. After these events there will be, as is written, "a new heaven and a new earth"; if only we believe this firmly and securely, we will arrive at the sight of that glory by the grace of Christ.
5. But if in this world we wish to be filled with a greater light so that even while we are here we can taste the sweetness of the life to come, let us consider, with as much awe and admiration as human mind is capable of, how the holy Trinity distinct in persons but inseparably connected and consubstantial in nature operates within the universe its creation and is everywhere entire; second, how it does not cease to be present although it is absent in evil; third, that the divine substance is beyond all light and its brightness is specific and cannot as it now is be fully grasped by any of its creations. As the Apostle says, "We shall see him just as he is"; fourth, the nature of compassion that is in Christ the king; that the Lord of angels did not disdain to assume the human condition, but, the life of all, chose to undergo the punishment of the cross. To enable the human race to conquer death, he, who cannot die, deigned to die in the flesh he had assumed — there are other things which various Fathers, filled with divine spirit, have written truly on this subject.
6. On these and like matters indeed all wonder fails, all human investigation surrenders. These are the delights of Christians; this is the great consolation of the sorrowful, since we drive from us the devil and his works by the single-minded consideration of these matters with the Lord's aid. Nevertheless, these things must be regarded with such awe that they are believed continually and without doubt; we must admit that these matters are beyond us, so that in every way they remain fixed in our minds. For although our minds may depart from such considerations, our Father must not in any way be in doubt. When in his generosity we shall see him, we shall be granted what we cannot achieve here. We shall know without doubt to the best of our ability; we shall see by his kindness insofar as he has granted us the capacity. As the Apostle says: "We now see through a mirror in an obscure manner, but then face to face."
7. What is the meaning of this statement that the face of God is promised to the blessed, although He is shaped by no difference in parts? Certainly the face of God is the knowledge of his excellence which we must adore, the holy statement of the divine light, the particular greatness of his omnipotence, such great purity of justice, that all other justice compared to his is trivial, unchangeable in the strength of truth, the balanced harmony of patience, the infinite fullness of goodness, the amazing order of his plan, his marvelous glory and exceptional benevolence. O great joy of the faithful, to whom it is promised to see the Lord "as he is"; since they believe most reverently in him, they are already filled with the great hope of blessedness. What will the sight we believe in add when he has already given such great things? Indeed it is a gift beyond value to see the Creator, from whom everything that has life gains its life, from whom everything that exists has its knowledge, from whom everything that has been created is directed, from whom whatever has been restored to the better rises and is repaired, from whom whatever is sought for salvation comes, from whom the virtues proceed by which the world itself is overcome. Although he gives support, and as pious judge governs all things in a way we cannot tell of, these will be the sweetest gifts when the merciful Redeemer deigns to appear to us. Such things as these that can be thought about that majesty are what the Apostle calls the face of God.
8. Grant we ask, O Lord, the most glorious holiness of this vision, so that you do not allow those in whom you have stirred up such great desire to be deprived of this goodness. Grant us sight of you who live forever, who deigned to die for us; let us see the glory of your majesty, you who wished to appear humble in our flesh. For to this world was granted that you looked kindly on your servants; but this world did not receive the ability to look fully and clearly on your countenance. Be sure, O Lord, to confer these things on those who believe in you, on whom you have bestowed all benefits.
9. On this subject, most beloved brothers, Father Augustine is as usual helpful to the faithful. He presented a full and wonderful discussion of it in the book that he wrote to Paulina On Seeing God. At the end of it he discussed clearly and briefly how God is seen. Let us not, therefore, put blind faith in our merits but in the grace of the Lord, and continually ask that sight of him be given to us. He generously made a three-fold promise to his people when he says: "Ask, and it shall be given you; seek, and you shall find; knock, and it shall be opened to you." From that, most dear brothers, it turns out that we truly deserve to come to heaven rather by the Lord's generosity than by the way in which the pagans falsely believed they could raise themselves to the structure on high. We may perhaps have exceeded the measure of the book; but in comparison with Genesis and Exodus and other books, these books, which we consider long, are short.
