To list all the statesmen in Italian history—consisting of thousands of emperors, kings, dukes, doges, dictators, tribunes, senators, consuls, counts, lords, princes, popes, prefects and politicians over a period of more than 2,000 years—would be nearly impossible. Below are some of the more notable and famous Italians who made a name for themselves as political leaders, both in Italy and abroad.
Ancient Rome
Roman Kingdom
Numa Pompilius (754-673 BC) – Second King of Rome and successor of Romulus, reigning from 715-673 BC. Most of the important religious and political institutions of ancient Rome are attributed to him, including the establishment of the Vestal Virgins, the cults of Mars, Jupiter and Quirinus, and the office of Pontifex Maximus.
Tullus Hostilius (710-641 BC) – Third King of Rome, reigning from 673-641 BC. A warlike king, his reign was marked by the conquest of Alba Longa. He also fought successful wars against Fidenae and Veii and against the Sabines. He also constructed the original Senate House, the Curia Hostilia.
Lucius Tarquinius Priscus (710-641 BC) – Fifth King of Rome, reigning from 616-579 BC. He increased the number of senators by adding one hundred men from the leading minor families. Among these was the family of the Octavii, from whom the first emperor, Augustus, would descend. Priscus is said to have built the Circus Maximus, the first and largest stadium at Rome. He drained the marshes of Rome by constructing the Cloaca Maxima, one of the world's earliest sewage systems. He also constructed a stone wall around the city and introduced many Etruscan civilian and military insignia into Roman culture: the sceptre of the king; the trabea; the fasces carried by the lictors; the curule chair; the toga praetexta; the rings worn by senators; the paludamentum; and the phalera.
Servius Tullius (c. 578-539 BC) – Sixth King of Rome, reigning from 578-539 BC. Remembered for his good order in government, the military and public morality, he was considered the wisest and best of Rome's kings. He is credited with the Servian Constitution, which extended voting rights to commoners and introduced two elements into the Roman system of government: a census of every male citizen, to establish his wealth, tax liabilities, military obligation, and the weight of his vote; and the Centuriate Assembly, an assembly with electoral, legislative and judicial powers. Both institutions were foundational for later Roman republicanism. He is also credited with introducing Rome's first minted coinage.
Roman Republic
Lucius Junius Brutus (545-509 BC) – Roman consul and traditional founder of the Roman Republic.
Spurius Cassius Viscellinus (542-485 BC) – One of the most distinguished men of the early Roman Republic. Three times consul. He was the first magister equitum and author of the first agrarian law.
Cincinnatus (519-438 BC) – Roman consul, dictator and general. He became a legendary figure of Roman virtue, particularly civic virtue. His resignation from office has often been praised as an example of outstanding leadership, service to the greater good, humility and modesty.
Marcus Furius Camillus (c. 446-365 BC) – Roman soldier and statesman who defended Rome from the Gauls. He triumphed four times, was five times dictator, and was awarded the title “Second Founder of Rome”. He was the longest-reigning Roman dictator until Sulla and Julius Caesar.
Appius Claudius Caecus (c. 350-271 BC) – Roman consul and dictator. Outstanding statesman and legal expert. He was responsible for the construction of Rome's first aqueduct and major road project.
Manius Curius Dentatus (330-270 BC) – Roman tribune, consul, general and plebeian hero. He led the Romans to victory over the Samnites and defeated Pyrrhus of Epirus near Beneventum, driving Pyrrhus out of Italy. He also oversaw the construction of the Anio Vetus, Rome's second aqueduct.
Marcus Porcius Cato or Cato the Censor (234-149 BC) – Roman senator, orator and historian known for his conservatism and opposition to Hellenization. He was successively military tribune, quaestor, aedile, praetor, junior consul and censor. As praetor, he expelled usurers from Sardinia. As censor, he tried to preserve Rome's ancestral customs and combat degenerate Hellenistic influences. He was also first to write history in Latin.
Gaius Marius (157-86 BC) – Roman statesman and general. He held the office of consul an unprecedented seven times during his career. He was also noted for his important reforms of the Roman army. Marius defeated the invading Germanic tribes, earning him the title “Third Founder of Rome”. His life and career were significant in Rome's transformation from Republic to Empire.
Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (163-133 BC) – Roman tribune and eldest of the Gracchi brothers, known as the “Fathers of Populism”. As a plebeian tribune, he defended the plebeian cause and proposed agrarian reforms that sought to redistribute land owned by the Roman State and by wealthy patricians to poorer landless farmers and soldiers, resulting in his assassination.
Gaius Sempronius Gracchus (154-121 BC) – Roman tribune and youngest of the Gracchi brothers, known as the “Fathers of Populism”. He continued his brother's agrarian reforms and proposed even more radical judicial and social reforms, including extending Roman citizenship to all Italians and establishing Roman colonies outside of Italy. He too was assassinated with 3,000 of his supporters.
Sulla (138-78 BC) – Roman general and statesman. He seized power following a civil war and revived the office of dictator, which had been inactive since the Second Punic War over a century earlier. Espousing the cause of the optimates (conservative senatorial aristocracy) over the populares (supporters of the plebeians), he enacted a series of reforms to the Roman Constitution, restoring the primacy of the Senate and limiting the power of the tribunes. His seizure of power set a precedent that would later inspire and enable Julius Caesar to do the same.
Marcus Licinius Crassus (c. 115-53 BC) – Roman general and statesman who played a key role in the transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire. Remembered for suppressing the slave revolt of Spartacus and for being one of the three leaders of the First Triumvirate with Julius Caesar and Pompey the Great. He was the richest man in Rome and one of the wealthiest men in history. His death ignited the civil war between Caesar and Pompey.
Lucius Sergius Catilina or Catiline (108-62 BC) – Roman senator and general. He had a distinguished military career, but is best known for leading the Catiline conspiracy—an attempt to overthrow the Roman Republic, the consulship of Cicero and the oligarchic power of the Senate. He and his entire army courageously fought and were slain in battle.
Pompey the Great (106-48 BC) – One of the great generals and statesmen of the late Roman Republic. He triumphed three times, was three times consul, and was one of the three leaders of the First Triumvirate with Julius Caesar and Marcus Licinius Crassus. His early military successes earned him the title “the Great”. Remembered for his civil war with Julius Caesar. His defeat was significant in Rome's transformation from Republic to Empire.
Cicero (106-43 BC) – Roman statesman, orator, lawyer and philosopher. Considered one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists, and one of the greatest statesmen of all time. His influence on the Latin language was so immense that the subsequent history of prose, not only in Latin but in other European languages up to the 19th century, was said to be either a reaction against or a return to his style. As a politician, he was successively governor, consul, praetor, aedile and quaestor. He opposed Julius Caesar, supported Pompey and championed a return to the traditional republican government. A supporter of the assassination of Julius Caesar and an opponent of Mark Antony, he was declared an enemy of the state by the Second Triumvirate and was executed.
Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) – Roman statesman and general. Universally considered one of the greatest generals and statesmen of all time, and one of the most important figures of world history. He was a popularis (defender of the plebeians) and one of the three leaders of the First Triumvirate with Marcus Licinius Crassus and Pompey the Great. His accomplishments, especially his victories in the Gallic Wars, led to him becoming one of the most powerful politicians in the Roman Republic. He extended Rome's territory to the Channel and the Rhine, and became the first Roman general to cross both the Channel and the Rhine. After assuming control of the government as dictator in perpetuity, he began a program of social and governmental reforms, including the creation of the Julian calendar. His assassination played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire.
Marcus Porcius Cato Uticensis or Cato the Younger (95-46 BC) – Roman statesman and great-grandson of Cato the Censor. A noted orator and stoic, he is remembered for his stubbornness and tenacity, as well as his immunity to bribes, his moral integrity, and his famous distaste for corruption. A defender of republican principles, he opposed Julius Caesar and committed suicide.
Sallust (86-34 BC) – Roman quaestor, tribune, senator, governor and historian. He was a popularis (opponent of the patricians) and a supporter of Julius Caesar. He developed the Gardens of Sallust. Remembered as one of the most important Latin historians of the first century BC. His Latin phrase concordia res parvae crescunt gave rise to the motto “unity makes strength”.
Marcus Antonius or Mark Antony (83-30 BC) – Roman general and statesman. He was a supporter of Julius Caesar and served as one of his generals during the conquest of Gaul and the Civil War. After Caesar's assassination, he became one of the three leaders of the Second Triumvirate with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus and Octavian. However, when Rome declared war on Queen Cleopatra, he betrayed the Roman government and joined Cleopatra. He was proclaimed a traitor by the Roman Senate, leading to a civil war with Octavian. Despite his treason, Antony is regarded as one of Rome's greatest generals.
Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (c. 63-12 BC) – Roman statesman, general, architect and son-in-law of Octavian Augustus. He was responsible for the construction of some of the most notable buildings in the history of Rome and for important military victories, such as the Battle of Actium against the forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra. As a result of these victories, Octavian became the first Roman Emperor. He assisted Augustus in making Rome a city of marble and in renovating aqueducts. He was responsible for the creation of many baths, porticoes and gardens, as well as the original Pantheon. He was also the inventor of the harpax.
Roman Empire
Octavian Augustus (63 BC - 14 AD) – Founder of the Roman Empire and 1st Roman Emperor, reigning from 27 BC to 14 AD. Universally recognized as one of the great administrative geniuses and one of the most important figures of world history. He dramatically enlarged the Roman Empire, annexing Egypt, Dalmatia, Pannonia, Noricum and Raetia, expanding possessions in Africa, completing the conquest of Hispania, and founding dozens of Italic colonies and cities all around the Empire. He developed networks of roads with an official courier system, introduced a standing army, established the Praetorian Guard, and created official police and fire-fighting services for Rome. He was the longest-reigning Roman emperor.
Tiberius (42 BC - 37 AD) – 2nd Emperor of the Roman Empire, reigning from 14 AD to 37 AD. One of the greatest Roman generals. His conquest of Pannonia, Dalmatia, Raetia and parts of Germania—which he had accomplished during the reign of Emperor Augustus—laid the foundations for the northern frontier of the Empire. During his reign he focused on economic growth and public security. His administration was that of a wise, intelligent statesman with a strong sense of duty. He left the Empire in a state of prosperity and peace.
Claudius (10 BC - 54 AD) – 4th Emperor of the Roman Empire, reigning from 41 AD to 54 AD. He was a capable and efficient administrator and an ambitious builder, constructing many new roads, aqueducts, and canals across the Empire. During his reign the Roman Empire underwent its first major expansion since the reign of Augustus. The provinces of Thrace, Noricum, Pamphylia, Lycia, and Judea were annexed. He also began the conquest of Britannia and banned Druidism. His 13-year reign would not be surpassed by any of his successors until Domitian, who reigned for 15 years.
Vespasian (9-79 AD) – 9th Emperor of the Roman Empire, reigning from 69 AD to 79 AD. He founded the Flavian dynasty that ruled the Empire for 27 years. His fame came from his military success; he commanded the Legio II Augusta during the Roman invasion of Britannia and subjugated Judaea during the First Judeo-Roman War. He reformed the financial system of Rome, increased imperial expansion in Britannia, and initiated several ambitious construction projects, including the building of the Flavian Amphitheatre, known today as the Roman Colosseum.
Trajan (53-117 AD) – 13th Emperor of the Roman Empire, reigning from 98-117 AD. Remembered as a successful soldier-emperor who presided over the greatest military expansion in Roman history, leading the Empire to attain its maximum territorial extent, annexing the Nabataean Kingdom, Dacia, Armenia and Mesopotamia. He is also known for his philanthropic rule, overseeing extensive public building programs and implementing social welfare policies, which earned him his enduring reputation as the second of the Five Good Emperors who presided over an era of peace and prosperity. He left numerous landmarks such as Trajan's Forum, Trajan's Market and Trajan's Column.
Hadrian (76-138 AD) – 14th Emperor of the Roman Empire, reigning from 117 AD to 138 AD. Considered the third of the Five Good Emperors. He is best known for building Hadrian's Wall, which marked the northern limit of Britannia. He abandoned Trajan's expansionist policies and instead was dedicated to the development of stable, defensible borders, and encouraged military preparedness and discipline. He developed permanent fortifications and military posts along the Empire's borders. He also fostered, designed or personally subsidized various civil and religious institutions and building projects, including the completion of the Pantheon.
Antoninus Pius (86-161 AD) – 15th Emperor of the Roman Empire, reigning from 138-161 AD. Mild-mannered and an effective administrator, he was the fourth of the Five Good Emperors. His reign is notable for the peaceful state of the Empire, with no major revolts or military incursions, and for his governing without ever leaving Italy. A successful military campaign in southern Scotland early in his reign resulted in the construction of the Antonine Wall. He left his successors a large surplus in the treasury, expanded free access to drinking water throughout the Empire, and sent a diplomatic mission to China.
Marcus Aurelius (121-180 AD) – 17th Emperor of the Roman Empire, reigning from 161-180 AD. Known as a stoic and as a philosopher king, he was the last of the rulers traditionally known as the Five Good Emperors. During his reign the Roman Empire defeated the Parthian Empire in the East, and defeated the Germanic tribes in the Marcomannic Wars. His death in 180 is seen as an end to the Pax Romana. For many generations his reign symbolized the Golden Age of the Roman Empire. The only dark mark on his reign was the exceedingly cruel and unfortunate persecution of Christians.
Constantine the Great (c. 272-337 AD) – The first Christian Emperor of the Roman Empire, reigning from 306-337 AD. He reunited the Roman Empire under one emperor after it had been divided by Diocletian. His Edict of Milan proclaimed religious tolerance for Christianity. He enacted numerous administrative, financial, social and military reforms to strengthen the Empire. He restructured the government, separating civil and military authorities. He introduced the solidus coin and dynastic succession. He also pursued successful military campaigns against the barbarian tribes on the Roman frontiers: Franks, Alamanni, Goths and Sarmatians. His near 31 year reign—the second longest after Augustus—changed the course of Christian and world history.
Middle Ages
Boethius (c. 477-524) – Roman senator, consul, magister officiorum and philosopher. Described as “the last of the Romans”, he is considered the last great representative of ancient Roman culture and the first great intellectual of the Middle Ages. With Cassiodorus, he was one of the most important figures of the transitional period of barbarian rule following the fall of the Western Roman Empire. He entered the service of King Theodoric for thirteen years and became the highest-ranking Roman official. He was later accused of conspiracy to restore Roman rule and was executed for treason. While in prison he wrote “The Consolation of Philosophy”, the last great work of classical antiquity and the single most influential work on Medieval and early Renaissance Christianity.
Cassiodorus (c. 485-580) – Roman statesman, scholar and monk. With Boethius, he was one of the most important figures of the transitional period following the fall of the Western Roman Empire. He devoted himself to both politics and culture, and helped save the culture of Rome at a time of impending barbarism. He entered the service of King Theodoric, becoming his closest advisor. He was successively quaestor, consul and magister officiorum. He also served as chancellor and wrote all of Theodoric's official letters. He later became Praetorian Prefect of Italy, the highest-ranking public office in Italy. He made a great contribution to Western culture by establishing a monastery school and the first scriptorium, collecting ancient manuscripts and enjoining his monks to copy the works of both secular and Christian authors, thereby preserving ancient writings.
Pope Gregory the Great (c. 540-604) – 67th Pope of the Catholic Church from 590-604, Prefect of Rome from 573-575 and papal ambassador to Constantinople from 579-586. With no emperor or competent imperial authority to defend Rome, he became the de facto political ruler of Rome and the most important civil leader in Italy, directing both the affairs of the Church and the government. He negotiated treaties, paid troops, appointed generals and governors, arranged relief and aid for other Italian cities, and oversaw the day-to-day functions of the city of Rome. He organized Rome's defenses to protect the city from the Longobard invaders and negotiated a truce using his own funds. He worked to convert the Longobards to Catholicism and to negotiate a peace between them and the Byzantine Empire. His most important accomplishment was sending the Gregorian Mission to Britain, which successfully converted the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity.
Pope Leo IV (790-855) – 106th Pope of the Catholic Church from 847-855. He is remembered for repairing Roman churches that were damaged during the Arab raids on Rome, including the Basilica of St. Paul Outside the Walls, and for building the Leonine Wall around Vatican Hill. He also organized a league of Italian cities which defeated the Saracens at sea in the Battle of Ostia.
Pope John X (c. 860 – 929) – 125th Pope of the Catholic Church from 914-928. He attempted to unify Italy under the leadership of King Berengario I, and was instrumental in the defeat of the Saracens at the Battle of Garigliano, a precursor to the Crusades, which the pope personally led. Despite being the foremost statesman of his age, his reputation has been seriously maligned, first by the calumnies of Liutprand of Cremona, and later by the anti-Catholic propaganda of Protestants and illuminists.
Pietro II Orseolo (961-1009) − 26th Doge of Venice from 991-1009 and Duke of Dalmatia. He initiated the period of eastern expansion of the Republic of Venice that would last for the next 500 years. He defeated the Narentine pirates that had infested the Adriatic Sea and liberated the Latin cities of Istria and Dalmatia, which all swore loyalty and fidelity to Venice. He greatly expanded Venetian influence through marriages, which enabled one grandson to become King of Croatia and another grandson to become the second King of Hungary. He also founded the Festa della Sensa (Ascension Festival)—the oldest festival in Venice—and the Marriage of the Sea ceremony to symbolize the maritime dominion of Venice.
Pope Gregory VII (1015 - 1085) - 157th Pope of the Catholic Church from 1073-1085. Best known for the Gregorian Reform and for the role he played in the Investiture Controversy. Hailed as one of the greatest Roman pontiffs in history. He was a superb administrator and a great papal statesman.
Domenico Selvo (c. 1000's - 1087) – 31st Doge of Venice from 1071-1084. His domestic policies, alliances and battles laid the foundations for much of the subsequent policies of the Republic of Venice. The first decade of his reign was marked by peace and prosperity. He expanded Venetian trade, supervised the construction of St. Mark's Basilica and commissioned its first mosaics. By gaining power through a vote and then willingly surrendering power, he left a long-term impact on the Venetian succession process, which became a model for peaceful, anti-nepotistic transitions of power.
Ruggero II or Roger II of Sicily (1095-1154) – Founder of the Kingdom of Sicily and first King of Sicily, reigning from 1130-1154. Born to a Norman father and an Italian mother. He united the whole of southern Italy and Sicily under a single ruler for the first time since the fall of the Roman Empire. He initiated the Sicilian conquest of North Africa, leading to the establishment of the Sicilian Kingdom of Africa. He also founded the Sicilian Parliament, which is considered the oldest parliament in the world. During his reign Sicily became the leading maritime power in the Mediterranean.
Enrico Dandolo (c. 1107-1205) – 41st Doge of Venice from 1192-1205. One of the most important doges in Venetian history. He was deeply ambitious and displayed tremendous energy and mental capacity. Remembered for his piety, longevity, cleverness, and for his role in the Fourth Crusade. He began the first codification of the Republic's laws. He also enacted important reforms to the Venetian currency system, introducing the first European token coin since ancient Rome (the quartarolo) and the first nearly pure silver and high denomination coin minted in western Europe in over five centuries (the grosso), which became the dominant coin of Mediterranean commerce. His conquest of the Byzantine Empire laid the foundations of the Venetian colonial empire.
Pope Innocent III (1161-1216) – 176th Pope of the Catholic Church from 1198-1216. Regarded as one of the most powerful and influential of the medieval popes, and is said to have been the most powerful person in Europe at the time. He extended his political power over the Italian peninsula, gaining temporal sovreignty over Rome, Romagna, the March of Ancona and the Duchy of Spoleto. He also greatly extended the scope of the crusades, directing crusades against Muslim Spain and the Holy Land (which he intended to lead himself), as well as the Albigensian Crusade against the Cathars.
Cangrande I della Scala (1291-1329) – Lord of Verona from 1308-1311. The best known, loved and celebrated scion of the Scaligeri dynasty. Best remembered as the friend and protector of Dante Alighieri. During his life he was known for his military conquests and was celebrated as a successful warrior and ruler. He was an able conqueror, a brilliant tactician, a brave fighter, an astute politician, a prudent administrator, and a generous patron of the arts and learning. Poets, painters, grammarians and historians were welcome during his reign.
Cola di Rienzo (1313-1354) – Italian notary, tribune, rector, senator and popular leader who twice became the de facto ruler of Rome in 1347 and 1354. He attempted to restore the Roman Republic and unite Italy under his leadership. Known as “the Last of the Tribunes”. He bore the title “Tribune of Freedom, Peace, Justice, and Liberator of the Holy Roman Republic”. His brief reign—totaling less than seven months—had a lasting impact on history. He is considered an early populist and proto-Fascist figure. Remembered as a romantic hero.
Galeazzo II Visconti (c. 1320-1378) – Co-Lord of Milan from 1354-1378. He played an important role in expanding Milanese dominion and centralizing the power of the Visconti, laying the foundations for the greater expansions of his son Gian Galeazzo Visconti. He was a patron of the arts and learning, and a patron of Petrarch. He also founded the University of Pavia, which would become one of the most important in Europe.
Renaissance
Gian Galeazzo Visconti (1351-1402) – The first Duke of Milan, reigning from 1395-1402. He brought the Visconti dynasty to the height of its wealth and power, and almost succeeded in uniting all of northern and central Italy under his rule. An able administrator, he coined money bearing the title Rex Italicorum, signifying his intention to make himself King of Italy. He founded the Certosa di Pavia, began the construction of Milan Cathedral, completed the Visconti Castle in Pavia, and created the Calà del Sasso—the longest stairway in the world.
Francesco Foscari (1373-1457) – 65th Doge of the Venice from 1423-1457. His reign was the longest in Venetian history and marked the height of Venetian power. Under him the Republic of Venice reached its greatest territorial extent, bringing all of Veneto, Friuli, Brescia and Bergamo under Venetian sovereignty.
Cosimo de' Medici (1389-1464) – The first member of the Medici dynasty to serve as de facto ruler of Florence, reigning from 1434-1464. Remembered as a moderate ruler, a skilled diplomat, and a great patron of the arts. He spent some 600,000 gold florins (approximately $460 million today) from his own purse to support charity, public works, buildings, scholarly learning, and other arts. He patronize men such as Fra Angelico, Fra Filippo Lippi, Luca Della Robbia, Donatello, Michelozzi and Brunelleschi. His administration laid the foundations for the Golden Age of Florence. Posthumously awarded the title “Father of the Fatherland”.
Pope Nicholas V (1397-1455) – 208th Pope of the Catholic Church from 1447-1455. He was a key figure in the Roman Renaissance and sought to make Rome the capital of literature and art. He strengthened fortifications, restored ancient Roman aqueducts, rebuilt many churches, paved new streets, rebuilt the Leonine City, founded the Vatican Library, and planned the construction of the Apostolic Palace and St. Peter's Basilica.
Francesco I Sforza (1401-1466) – Duke of Milan from 1450-1466 and founder of the Sforza dynasty. A moderate and skillful ruler. He modernized the city and duchy of Milan. He created an efficient system of taxation that generated enormous revenues and his court became a center of Renaissance learning and culture. He played an important role in bringing about the Peace of Lodi and the Italic League, which brought peace and stability to Italy for 40 years. He was the first European ruler to follow a foreign policy based on the concept of the balance of power, and was the first Italian ruler to conduct extensive diplomacy outside the peninsula to counter the power of threatening states such as France. His policies succeeded in keeping foreign powers from dominating Italian politics for the rest of the century.
Ludovico III Gonzaga (1412-1478) – Marchese of Mantua from 1444-1478. He is considered the most remarkable scion of the Gonzaga family. Remembered as a devoutly religious ruler and patron of literature and the arts. Under his leadership Mantua became one of the capitals of the Italian Renaissance and the Gonzaga family rose to its highest level of prestige.
Federico da Montefeltro (1422-1482) – Lord of Urbino from 1444-1474 and the first Duke of Urbino from 1474-1482. Nicknamed “the Light of Italy”. He was a renowned intellectual, general and civil leader with an impeccable reputation for martial skill and honor. As a condottiero, he remained undefeated on the battlefield. As a ruler, he commissioned the construction of the Ducal Palace of Urbino and the construction of a great library—the second largest in Italy after the Vatican Library—with . He also supported the development of artists, including Raphael. Remembered as one of the most benevolent, honorable, cultured and important leaders of the Renaissance period.
Lorenzo de' Medici (1449-1492) – Lord of Florence from 1469-1492. Nicknamed “Lorenzo the Magnificent”, he is considered the most brilliant member of the House of Medici and the best statesman of the Italian Renaissance. He was a magnate, diplomat, politician, artist, poet, and the most powerful and enthusiastic patron of Renaissance culture in Italy. Best known for his sponsorship of artists such as Botticelli and Michelangelo. His reign marked the Golden Age of Florence. He played an important role in bringing about the Peace of Lodi and the Italic League, which brought peace and stability to Italy for 40 years.
Cesare Borgia (1475-1507) – Italian condottiero, nobleman, politician, bishop and cardinal. One of the most famous and controversial figures of the Italian Renaissance. He held numerous titles, including Prince of Andria, Prince of Venafri, Duke of Valentino, Duke of Romagna, Duke of Urbino, Count of Diois and Duke of Camerino. Despite his controversial reputation, he is recognized as a brilliant military commander and a skillful statesman. His rise to power was a major inspiration for Machiavelli's “The Prince”.
Ercole I d'Este (1431-1505) – Duke of Ferrara, Modena and Reggio from 1471-1505. One of the main patrons and figures of Renaissance culture. His long rule marked one of the most important periods in the history of Ferrara and the House of Este. His court was among the most refined in Europe. He patronized theatre and musical arts, establishing Ferrara as one of the leading centres of music. He also sponsored the first major urban renewal project of the Renaissance, nearly doubling the city's size. For this reason Ferrara was defined as the first modern city in Europe. Many of Ferrara's most famous buildings date from his reign.
Ludovico Sforza (1452-1508) – Duke of Milan from 1480-1499. He presided over the most productive stage of the Milanese Renaissance. As a patron of Leonardo da Vinci and other artists, he is best known for commissioning The Last Supper. He was a good administrator: he invested in agriculture, increased employment, sponsored extensive work in civil and military engineering, continued work on the Milan Cathedral, and had the streets of Milan enlarged and adorned with gardens. However, he was also responsible for starting the Italian Wars, which ultimately caused much of Italy—including the Duchy of Milan—to fall under foreign domination.
Caterina Sforza (1463-1509) – Lady of Imola and Countess of Forlì. Nicknamed “The Tigress of Forlì” and “Lioness of Romagna”. Known as a ruthless ruler. Considered the most famous virago of the Renaissance. She distinguished herself through her bold and impetuous actions taken to safeguard her possessions and defend her dominions from attack.
Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498) – Italian friar, preacher, politician and de facto ruler of Florence from 1494-1498. Remembered as the most pious, eloquent and moralistic ruler of the Renaissance. He briefly established a theocratic republic based on popular support. He condemned cultural degeneration, denounced corruption, despotism, exploitation of the poor, and called for Christian renewal. His moral reforms famously included bonfires of the vanities—public burnings of immoral literature, degenerate art and objects of vanity.
Isabella d'Este (1474-1539) – Marchesa of Mantua from 1490-1519 and Regent from 1519-1521. One of the leading women of the Italian Renaissance. Known as the “First Lady of the Renaissance” and the “First Lady of the World”. She was a patron of the arts, hiring many of the most famous Renaissance artists, as well as a leader of fashion. Her innovative style of dressing was copied by women throughout Italy and France. She was regarded as generous, magnanimous, wise and supreme among women. When her husband was captured and held hostage in Venice, she took control of Mantua's military forces and held off the invaders. She famously converted her house into an asylum for civilians fleeing the Imperial soldiers during the Sack of Rome. She also protected Mantua from French attacks and was instrumental in elevating Mantua to a Duchy.
Pope Julius II (1443-1513) – 216th Pope of the Catholic Church from 1503-1513. Known as “The Warrior Pope”. One of the most celebrated popes of the Renaissance. His pontificate was marked by an active foreign policy, ambitious building projects and patronage of the arts. He commissioned the rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica, Michelangelo's painting of the Sistine Chapel, and hired Raphael. Although initially an ally of foreign powers, he was later dedicated to the principle of Italian independence, and his military and diplomatic interventions prevented a take-over of the Italian States by France, earning him the title “Liberator of Italy”.
Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527) – Italian diplomat, politician, historian, philosopher, writer, playwright and poet. Second Chancellor of the Republic of Florence from 1498-1512. One of the most famous figures of the Italian Renaissance. He is regarded as the father and founder of modern political science.
Bona Sforza (1494-1557) – A member of the powerful House of Sforza, which ruled the Duchy of Milan since 1447. Through marriage she became Queen of Poland and Grand Duchess of Lithuania from 1518-1548. Ambitious and energetic, she became heavily involved in the political life of Poland-Lithuania, implementing various economic and agricultural reforms. Through diplomacy she saved Poland from Ottoman invasion. She introduced Italian Renaissance culture to Poland-Lithuania by bringing Italian writers, painters, architects, musicians, chefs, gardeners and horticulturalists to her court. She had a lasting impact on Polish cuisine by introducing foods such as tomatoes, cauliflower, artichokes, green beans, cabbage, lettuce, celery, carrots, parsley, leeks, broccoli and spinach. She is also credited with introducing some of Poland's prized dishes, including lazanki and pierogi.
Pope Pius V (1504-1572) – 225th Pope of the Catholic Church from 1566-1572. Known for his virtue, piety and austerity. He banished luxury from his court, raised the standard of morality and condemned nepotism. His distributed alms to the poor, visited hospitals and consoled the sick. He worked incessantly to unite Christendom against the Ottoman Turks. For this reason he is best remembered for his role in forming the Holy League, a Christian alliance between Spain and the Italian States, which famously defeated the Ottomans at the Battle of Lepanto.
Cosimo I de' Medici (1519-1574) – Duke of Florence from 1537-1569 and first Grand Duke of Tuscany from 1569-1574. He successfully restored the power of the Medici dynasty, which would rule Tuscany until 1737. He worked to increase Tuscany's independence and free it from the influence of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. He was an active builder of military structures, designed to prevent the passage of foreign armies. He built roads, drainage works, ports, fortresses and instituted a new criminal code. He founded the Uffizi, which today houses one of the world's most important collections of art. He also founded the Knights of St. Stephen, strengthened the army and developed the Tuscan fleet, which participated in the Battle of Lepanto.
Caterina or Catherine de' Medici (1519-1589) – Queen of France from 1547-1559 and Regent from 1560-1563. The single most powerful scion of the House of Medici and the most powerful woman of the 16th century. She had an extensive influence on the political life of France. She supported religious tolerance and attempted to reconcile Catholics and Protestants. Although she gained an unfair reputation as a ruthless ruler, particularly due to her reign coinciding with the outbreak of the French Wars of Religion, she had an enormous impact on French culture and left an enduring legacy. From Italy she brought with her an army of Italian craftsmen, architects, artists, musicians, cooks, confectioners, stylists and dancers. Her patronage of the arts, architecture, literature, theatre and court festivals made a significant contribution to the Renaissance in France. She is credited with introducing many Italian customs and refinements to France, such as handkerchiefs, forks, table etiquette and manners, the folding fan, the side saddle, the violin, opera, ballet, perfume and underwear. A large portion of modern French cuisine derives its origin from the Italian-style cuisine introduced during her reign.
Alessandro Farnese (1545-1592) – Italian general and nobleman. Duke of Parma, Piacenza and Castro from 1586-1592 and Governor-General of the Spanish Netherlands from 1578-1592. Best known for his successful campaign against the Dutch Revolt and for his relief in the Siege of Paris. He also fought in the Battle of Lepanto and was a commander of the Spanish Armada. His talents as a field commander, strategist and organizer earned him the regard of his contemporaries and military historians as the greatest general of his age. An expert politician, he was primarily responsible for maintaining Spanish control of the Netherlands and for preserving Roman Catholicism in the southern provinces. His construction of a solid line of defense against the United Provinces consolidated the union of the Catholic Netherlands and laid the foundations for the creation of Belgium.
Seicento and Settecento
Cardinal Mazzarino or Cardinal Mazarin (1602-1661) – Italian cardinal, politician and diplomat. He served as the Chief Minister to kings Louis XIII and Louis XIV of France from 1642-1661. Remembered as an outstanding diplomat. As the de facto ruler of France, he played a crucial role in establishing the Westphalian principles that would guide European states' foreign policy and the prevailing world order. Some of these principles remain the basis of international law to this day. He was also an important patron of the arts. He introduced Italian Opera on a grand scale to Paris, assembled a remarkable art collection, and founded the Mazarin Library—the first true public library in France.
Elisabetta Farnese (1692-1766) – Queen of Spain and de facto ruler of Spain from 1714-1746. The last member of the illustrious House of Farnese. She exerted great influence over Spain's foreign policy. Her ambitions to secure Italian possessions embroiled Spain in wars for three decades, however her capability in choosing able and devoted ministers brought about beneficial internal reforms, military improvements and succeeded in improving Spain's economy.
Pasquale Paoli (1725-1807) – Italian revolutionary, patriot, statesman, general and founder of the Corsican Republic. President of Corsica from 1755-1769 and 1794-1796. Called the “Father of the Fatherland”. He led the Corsican resistance against the French occupation of Corsica. He founded the first University of Corsica and created the Corsican Constitution, which was the first constitution in the world written according to Enlightenment principles.
Napoleonic Era
Napoleone Bonaparte (1769-1821) – Italian general, statesman and founder of the First French Empire. Emperor of the French from 1804-1814, King of Italy from 1805-1814 and Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine from 1806-1813. Universally regarded as one of the most important figures of world history. He is also considered one of the greatest military commanders in history, having fought 60 battles and losing only seven of them. His wars and campaigns are studied at military schools worldwide. He came closer to conquering Europe than any other person in modern history, conquering the Holy Roman Empire, the Habsburg Empire, Italy, Spain, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Poland and Prussia. His influence on the modern world brought many reforms to the territories he conquered. His Napoleonic Code has influenced the legal systems of more than 70 nations around the world and is considered the greatest codification of laws since the fall of the Roman Empire.
Elisa Bonaparte Baciocchi (1777-1820) – Princess of Lucca and Piombino from 1805-1814, Duchess of Massa and Princess of Carrara from 1806-1814, and Grand Duchess of Tuscany from 1809-1814. She was Napoleon's only sister to possess political power. Highly interested in the arts, particularly the theatre and sculpting, she encouraged them in the territories in which she ruled. She founded schools, set up a public charity composed of clergy and laymen, instituted free medical consultations for the poor, and established a committee to encourage and finance the invention of new machines and techniques for agricultural production.
Giuseppe di Buonaparte (1768-1844) – King of Naples and Sicily from 1806-1808 and King of Spain from 1808-1813. Older brother of Napoleone Bonaparte. He was well liked by his subjects and acquainted himself with the local nobles, clergy and people. He embarked on an ambitious program of reform and public works aimed at raising Naples to the level of a modern state.
Luigi Buonaparte (1778-25 July 1846) – King of Holland from 1806-1810. Younger brother of Napoleone Bonaparte. He was popular among his subjects and sought to make Holland as independent as possible from the French Empire. Although he could not speak Dutch, his sincere effort earned him the respect of his subjects.
Girolamo Buonaparte (1784-1860) – King of Westphalia from 1807-1813 and Prince of Montfort from 1816-1860. Youngest brother of Napoleone Bonaparte. He instituted the first constitution and parliament in German history. He later served as Marshal of France and President of the Senate.
Risorgimento
Napoleon III (1808-1873) – Emperor of the French from 1852-1870 and founder of the Second French Empire. One of the most important men in the history of France. He modernized the French banking system, greatly expanded and consolidated the French railway system and made the French merchant marine the second largest in the world. He promoted the building of the Suez Canal and established modern agriculture, which made France an agricultural exporter. He doubled the area of the French overseas empire in Asia, the Pacific and Africa, and remains the longest-serving French head of state since the French Revolution.
Camillo Benso, Conte di Cavour (1810-1861) – Italian statesman and leading figure of Italian Unification. He was the leading government figure of the Kingdom of Sardinia from 1850-1861 and became the first Prime Minister of Italy in 1861. He successfully negotiated Sardinia's way through the Crimean War, the Second Italian War of Independence, and Garibaldi's expeditions. Through a combination of war and diplomacy he turned the Kingdom of Sardinia into a new great power in Europe which then led Italian Unification and became the Kingdom of Italy. Regarded as the most successful parliamentarian in Italian history and one of the greatest statesmen of the 19th century.
Modern
Gabriele D'Annunzio (1863-1938) – Italian writer, poet, playwright, soldier, politician, journalist and patriot. A famous poet and a distinguished soldier, he organized and led the conquest of Fiume in the aftermath of World War I with the intention of annexing it to the Kingdom of Italy. He founded the short-lived Italian Regency of Carnaro, a city-state based around the Italian city of Fiume, and proclaimed himself ruler. He was a modern Renaissance man, the likes of which the world had not seen in many centuries. His enterprise and brief reign from 1919-1920—undertaken in defiance of all governments—had an enormous impact on Italian and world politics. His revolutionary constitution, combination of thought and action, blend of authoritarian and democratic ideas, and overall style is considered a precursor of Fascism.
Benito Mussolini (1883-1945) – Italian journalist, soldier and ruler of Italy from 1922-1945. Best remembered as the founder of Fascism. He became the youngest Prime Minister of Italy and remains the longest-reigning Prime Minister in Italian history. He sought to modernize and transform Italy into a self-sustaining world power capable of challenging the hegemony of Great Britain and France. He founded the Italian Empire and brought Italy to the height of its political and military power, elevating Italy to its most powerful position in the world since the fall of the Roman Empire. He ruled based on popular consensus and gained enormous popularity. He reconciled Church and State (thereby solving the Roman Question), recognized the independence of Vatican City, launched massive public works and social programs, instituted welfare for mothers and children, reduced unemployment, raised the standards of health and education, increased the literacy rate, improved the living conditions, drained marshes, rebuilt ruined towns, founded new cities, established several Italian colonies in Africa, abolished slavery, reformed the Penal Code (which still remains in force today in a modified form), decreased crime and defeated the Mafia. In his lifetime he was regarded as the man who saved Italy from Communism and was admired around the world for his success in avoiding the Great Depression. The pope defined him as “the Man sent by Providence” and he was widely praised and hailed as the greatest statesman of the 20th century. Despite the stigma now attached to his name, he remains one of the most important figures in world history.
