Furor Teutonicus: The View of Germans in Medieval Italy

Introduction

Since the days of Otto I’s conquest of the Kingdom of Italy in 951, Italy was ruled by the emperors of the Holy Roman Empire. Although Henry II brutally suppressed Italian revolts in 1004 and stabilized his rule in 1014, his successors had a difficult time maintaining their lordship. But Emperor Frederick I, nicknamed ‘Barbarossa’ by the Italians, was determined to reestablish imperial German control over Italy. An alliance of northern Italian cities organised in the Lombard League against the German emperor, to wage a war for the liberties they had grown accustomed to during the absence of assertive German rulers on the peninsula. This military confrontation, which coincided largely with the emperor’s conflict with the papacy over the papal schism of 1159, was accompanied by a bitter literary war in which the ancient Latin phrase furor teutonicus was readily employed by Italian authors to describe the German national character. The period of Barbarossa’s six Italian Expeditions is a veritable goldmine of medieval Italian anti-German sentiment.

Negative views on the Germans were by no means limited only to Italians or the conflicts that the Italian cities had with the Imperial authorities. Medieval Europe did not love the Germans. The Italians, the French, the English and the Slavs were all united in their dislike of the Germans. But it is the Italian side that we will concentrate on.

Furor Teutonicus

The phrase that seemed to sum up the German national character well is best known from the lines in Lucan’s (b.39-d.65 AD) historical epic Pharsalia:

“Nos primi Senonum motus Cimbrumque ruentem vidimus et Martem Libyes cursumque furoris Teutonici.” (“We were the first to behold the commotions of the Senones, the Cimbrian, too, rushing on, and the Libyan god of war, and the onslaught of Teutonic rage.”)

In the Middle Ages the word Teuton, the name of an ancient Germanic tribe, was used by the Latin-speaking world to refer to the Germanic peoples living to the east of the Rhine in the Holy Roman Empire. Soon after the adjective teutonicus had become associated with the mediaeval Germans, those who criticised the Germans invoked the ancient phrase furor teutonicus, comparing them to their barbarian ancestors that had threatened the Roman Republic between 120 and 102 BC.

It has been observed that the number of instances the phrase furor teutonicus occurs in mediaeval Italian sources peaks in the mid-1100s, in the context of Emperor Frederick I’s Italian expeditions. This is hardly surprising, considering the circumstances. The actions of Frederick Barbarossa in Italy provoked a large amount of verbal attacks against his own person as well as against his fellow German countrymen, and in this situation it is understandable that Italians wishing to express their anger revived the ancient phrase furor teutonicus to characterise the aggressive emperor as the ruler of an uncultured race of irrational barbarians.

The Latin poem Carmen de gestis Frederici I. imperatoris in Lombardia, written between 1162 and 1166 by an Italian author from Bergamo, mentions a confrontation between the troops of Milan and Barbarossa’s army on the banks of the river Adda in July 1158. When Frederick tries to cross the river his opponents taunt him with the words “Non datur hic transire tibi, rex ruffe, furoris Teutonici ductor!” (“Here you are not allowed to cross, redheaded king, leader of Teutonic savagery!”)

The formula is used next in the direct context of the papal schism of 1159. In the Carmina ad schisma Alexandrinum pertinentia the anti-pope Victor IV, the emperor’s candidate, is told in no uncertain terms that he lacks legitimacy, because “Erigit in statuam te cursus et ira furoris Teutonici.” (“He raiseth up a pillar of wrath and Teutonic savagery.”)

In his account of the siege of Rome in the summer of 1167, Cardinal Boso refers to “illa Teutonicorum seva barbaries,” (“that cruel Teutonic barbarism,”) as well as the furor that possessed the imperial troops attacking St Peter’s.

When, finally, a peace treaty was about to be arranged between the Pope, the Emperor and emissaries of the Lombard League in 1177, these parties convened at Ferrara. In the account of Archbishop Romuald of Salerno of the meeting both the Pope and the Lombards make use of the notorious phrase. The fact that Pope Alexander III (‘the aged and unarmed priest’) was able to get the Emperor to relent (and ‘resist the fury of the Teutons’) is presented as nothing less than an example of divine intervention:

“Non ab homine, sed a Domino factum est istud, et est mirabile in oculis nostris, quod senex presbyter et inhermis furori Theutonico potuit propugnare et sine bello imperatoris potentiam potuit debellare.” (“Not the power of man, but the power of God has brought it about, and it is wonderful in our eyes, that an aged and unarmed priest has been able to withstand Teutonic fury and overthrow the might of the emperor without a blow.”)

In the Liber de obsidione Ancone, which deals with the siege of the strategically important maritime city of Ancona by the troops of Archbishop Christian of Mainz in 1173, Boncompagno da Signa informs us that a number of women offered themselves as a source of food to the nearly starved soldiers defending the city, “quia minus malum credimus esse mori, quam in illorum pervenire potestatem, qui furorem pro lege habent...” (“because we believe that it is better to die than to fall into the hands of those who are full of fury...”).

The Italian usage of the phrase in the context of Barbarossa’s policy towards Italy is not insignificant. If a term like furor teutonicus suddenly reappears with such frequency after centuries of near disuse and then almost exclusively referring to the subject of the emperor wanting to subject Italy then there must be a reason.

Peter Amelung would see the transfer of the phrase furor teutonicus to the Germans as a good example of the mediaeval Italians’ habit of transferring what was known of antiquity’s verdict on the ancient Germanic tribes to the Germans of the day. These venerated ancient verdicts generally supported the ideas the Italians had on who were culturally superior to whom.

But there are other considerations. Ludwig Schmugge has noted that the 12th century was in general a time of proliferation for ‘national’ stereotypes in Europe. Although the ancient stereotypes and generalisations would not have been totally replaced, the 12th century nonetheless appears to have featured a new trend leading to an abundance of subjective firsthand experiences in the sources. In Schmugge’s opinion, this development is a direct consequence of an increase in popular mobility in this period. As examples he cites the prejudices that arose in the context of the Crusades, pilgrimages and the renaissance of scholarship that brought young men from all over western Europe to Paris. 12th century Italy could draw on both sources of prejudice for its verdict on the Germans trying to enforce Imperial rule on the peninsula, and the actions of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa and his subjects certainly provided ample provocation to do so.

After all, the Germans’ violent reputation in mediaeval Italy is understandable in the context of Barbarossa’s Italian expeditions. Many cities were besieged and destroyed with the help of new siege engines, and huge armies and bands of cruel mercenaries roamed the land as the emperor tried to assert his authority with the use of violence. For the mediaeval inhabitants of Italy who were confronted with this brutality, ‘Teutonic fury’ probably was the most salient feature of German behaviour.

Whether this was in itself a valid reason to elevate furor teutonicus to the defining German ‘national’ characteristic is another question.

Beyond the Furor

The barbarian image of the Germans so effectively conveyed by the phrase furor teutonicus is complemented by a number of further accusations in mediaeval Italian sources. For instance, Donizo (died after 1136), considered the Alemanni as intemperate drunkards. According to Peter Amelung, in the Italians’ view the ‘national’ characteristics of the Germans also included gluttony, bad table manners and dipsomania, the latter of which was not reserved for the “Teutons”, but also attributed to the English, Bohemians and Normans. These negative traits were topped by a general lack of hygiene. Salimbene of Parma, for instance, tells us of a Podestà of Cremona appointed by Barbarossa’s grandson Frederick II who was suffering from such a revolting disease that nobody would stay with him “except for a German girl” (“excepta juvencula theutonica”) who was used to dirt.

It appears as though these characterisations were at least in part an expression of political powerlessness on the part of the Italians, suffering from a succession of invasions until the Lombard League succeeded in providing an efficient resistance which culminated in victory at the battle of Legnano in 1176. The victims of constant invasion comforted themselves with the thought that their enemies were a race of uncultured barbarians against whose cruelty (furor, rabies) resistance was nigh futile. It certainly seems as though such “barbarians”, as Bishop Guglielmo of Pavia called the Germans in 1167, were not credited with possessing much more in the way of higher mental faculties than was necessary to burn and pillage a civilised town. The populace of mediaeval Rome liked to refer to these people as stulti Alemanni, or ‘the stupid Germans’.

But was the mediaeval Italian view of the Germans exclusively negative? It would seem so. The Italians attached no noticeably positive characteristics to their northern neighbours. Unlike the French, in whose eyes German loyalty was one of their few redeeming features, the Italians had no time for the Germans’ reputed obedience and loyalty towards their authorities since these qualities made them the blind tools of their lords.

Outside of the urban context of the northern and central regions of the peninsula (the Kingdom of Italy, as it were), the Germans apparently were none too popular either. According to the Historia Pontificalis, in the days of Barbarossa’s predecessor Conrad III (1139-52) many Germans sought refuge at the court of the Norman King Roger of Sicily, “‘who might have received more of them’ ... except that the Germans were a race whose barbarism he could not endure”. When Barbarossa’s son Henry VI was about to inherit the Sicilian-Norman throne in 1189 due to his marriage with the late king’s aunt, those favouring the native claimant, Count Tancred of Lecce, claimed German rule would result in Henry’s barbarian hordes bringing destruction to the island’s prospering towns and robbery, violence, rape and slavery to the populace.

Conclusion

Anti-German stereotypes obviously already had existed in Italy before the massive intervention under Frederick I, Barbarossa but were nonetheless increasingly widespread in this period. Some of these stereotypes were merely lifted from ancient sources, some may have been the products of personal experience, but all of them had a political edge to them in the struggles taking place in Italy in this time. All these negative traits ascribed to the Germans seem to be neatly encapsulated in the proverbial furor teutonicus.

References:
• Lucan (Pharsalia, 61 A.D.)
• Anonymous (Carmen de gestis Frederici I imperatoris in Lombardia, 1162-1166)
• Anonymous (Carmina ad schisma Alexandrinum pertinentia, 1163)
• Boso Breakspeare (Gesta Romanorum Pontificum, 12th century)
• Romualdo Guarna (Chronicon sive Annales, 12th century)
• Boncompagno da Signa (Liber de obsidione Ancone, 1198-1201)
• Salimbene de Adam (Chronica, 13th century)
• John of Salisbury (Historia Pontificalis, 1336-1374)

Italian Sopranos

Anna Renzi (c. 1620-1661) - The first diva in the history of opera.

Francesca Cuzzoni (1696-1778) - Considered one of the finest sopranos of the Baroque era.

Giuditta Pasta (1797-1865) - Considered the greatest sopranos of her time and one of the greatest opera singers of the 19th century.

Angelica Catalani (1780-1849) - Considered one of the greatest operatic singers of all time.

Eugenia Tadolini (1809-1872) - One of the leading sopranos of the 1830's and 1840's. Noted for creating more than twenty leading operatic roles.

Giulia Grisi (1811-1869) - One of the leading sopranos of the 19th century.

Fanny Salvini-Donatelli (c. 1815-1891) - Noted for her performances in the operas of Verdi and Donizetti.

Giuseppina Strepponi (1815-1897) - Wife of Giuseppe Verdi. One of the leading sopranos of the 19th century.

Erminia Frezzolini (1818-1884) - One of the most renown sopranos of her generation.

Adelina Patti (1843-1919) - Called the “Queen of Song”. The most famous singer of the 19th century. Called “the finest singer who ever lived” by Verdi.

Gemma Bellincioni (1864-1950) - One of the best-known opera singers of the late 19th century.

Luisa Tetrazzini (1871-1940) - One of the most popular sopranos between the 1890's and 1920's.

Lina Cavalieri (1874-1944) - Considered one of the most iconic sopranos of the early 20th century. Killed in an Allied bombing raid in World War II.

Celestina Boninsegna (1877-1947) - One of the most successfully recorded voices in the period before World War I.

Armanda degli Abbati (1879-1946) - Noted for training a generation of Estonian opera singers. Died in a Soviet prison camp after World War II.

Amelita Galli-Curci (1882-1963) - Considered one of the greatest coloratura sopranos ever recorded.

Carmen Melis (1885-1967) - Teacher of Renata Tebaldi. Considered one of the most interesting singing actresses of the early 20th century.

Claudia Muzio (1889-1936) - One of the most important sopranos of the early 20th century.

Toti Dal Monte (1893-1975) - Considered the greatest Italian coloratura soprano of her generation.

Maria Caniglia (1905-1979) - One of the leading Italian dramatic sopranos of the 1930's and 1940's.

Margherita Carosio (1908-2005) - One of the leading bel canto sopranos of her generation.

Licia Albanese (1909-2014) - One of the most admired sopranos of the mid-20th century.

Magda Olivero (1910-2014) - One of the last of the verismo sopranos.

Renata Tebaldi (1922-2004) - The leading Italian soprano of the 1950's and 1960's. Considered one of the greatest sopranos of all time.

Antonietta Stella (b. 1929) - Considered one of the finest Italian spinto sopranos of the 1950's and 1960's.

Gabriella Tucci (b. 1929) - Noted as a versatile singing-actress, able to perform a wide range of roles from bel canto to verismo.

Renata Scotto (b. 1934) - Considered one of the greatest sopranos of the 20th century.

Mirella Freni (b. 1935) - Considered one of the greatest sopranos of all time.

Maria Chiara (b. 1939) - Called “the second Tebaldi”.

Katia Ricciarelli (b. 1946) - Considered one of the greatest Verdian sopranos of her generation.

Mariella Devia (b. 1948) - Called the “Queen of bel canto”.

Daniela Dessì (1957-2016) - Considered the most versatile soprano of her generation.

Susanna Rigacci (b. 1960) - Noted as the modern voice behind the compositions of Ennio Morricone.

Anna Caterina Antonacci (b. 1961) - Considered one of the finest sopranos of her generation.

Barbara Frittoli (b. 1967) - Considered one of the leading lirico-spinto sopranos of her generation.

Giorgia Fumanti (b. 1975) - Considered one of the most talented crossover sopranos.

Italian Tenors

Major Italian Tenors

Enrico Caruso (1873-1921) - Universally regarded as the greatest tenor of all time.

Giovanni Martinelli (1885-1969) - Considered one of the greatest tenors of the 20th century.

Beniamino Gigli (1890-1957) - Widely regarded as one of the greatest tenors of his generation and one of the greatest tenors of all time.

Mario Del Monaco (1915-1982) - Considered one of the greatest tenors of the 20th century.

Franco Corelli (1921-2003) - Considered one of the greatest tenors of the 20th century and one of the greatest tenors of all time.

Giuseppe Di Stefano (1921-2008) - Considered one of the greatest tenors of the 20th century.

Luciano Pavarotti (1935-2007) - Universally regarded as the greatest tenor of his generation and one of the greatest tenors of all time.

Andrea Bocelli (b. 1958) - Widely regarded as the greatest living tenor.


Minor Italian Tenors

Francesco Tamagno (1850-1905) - One of the first tenors to record his voice.

Alessandro Bonci (1870-1940) - Called the “King of Bel Canto”. Considered one of the greatest bel canto tenors.

Aureliano Pertile (1885-1952) - Considered one of the best operatic artists of the interwar period and one of the most important tenors of the entire 20th century.

Francesco Merli (1887-1976) - Considered one of the finest dramatic tenors of the interwar period.

Giacomo Lauri-Volpi (1892-1979) - One of the most celebrated tenors of the first half of the 20th century.

Ferruccio Tagliavini (1913-1995) - One of the most celebrated tenors of the 1940's and 1950's.

Cesare Valletti (1922-2000) - The leading tenore di grazia of the 1950's.

Sergio Franchi (1926-1990) - Considered one of the great tenors of the 20th century.

Italian Baritones

Major Italian Baritones

Antonio Cotogni (1831-1918) - Considered the greatest baritone of his time and the greatest baritone of the 19th century.

Mattia Battistini (1856-1928) - Known as the “King of the Baritones”. Considered one of the finest bel canto singers.

Giuseppe De Luca (1876-1950) - Considered one of the greatest baritones of the 20th century.

Titta Ruffo (1877-1953) - Known as the “Voice of the Lion”. Considered one of the greatest baritones of the 20th century. Widely regarded as the greatest baritone of all time.

Tito Gobbi (1913-1984) - Considered one of the greatest baritones of the 20th century.

Ettore Bastianini (1922-1967) - Considered one of the greatest baritones of the 20th century.

Piero Cappuccilli (1929-2005) - Considered one of the greatest baritones of the 20th century and the leading baritone of his generation.

Renato Bruson (b. 1936) - Considered one of the most important Verdi baritones of the late 20th and early 21st century.

Leo Nucci (b. 1942) - Widely regarded as one of the greatest Verdi baritones of all time and the greatest baritone of his generation.


Minor Italian Baritones

Antonio Magini-Coletti (1855-1912) - Accomplished exponent of both the verismo and bel canto traditions. One of the first Italian singers whose voice was recorded.

Giuseppe Campanari (1855-1927) - Considered one of the greatest baritones of his time.

Antonio Pini-Corsi (1858-1918) - One of the great buffo baritones of the period between 1880 and World War I.

Antonio Scotti (1866-1936) - Considered one of the greatest baritones of his time.

Mario Sammarco (1868-1930) - Noted as an acting baritone.

Riccardo Stracciari (1875-1955) - One of Italy's leading baritones before World War I. Considered one of the greatest baritone of his time.

Domenico Viglione-Borghese (1877-1957) - Noted for his powerful voice.

Pasquale Amato (1878-1942) - Considered one of the most distinctive singers of his time.

Carlo Galeffi (1884-1961) - One of the leading baritones of the interwar period.

Apollo Granforte (1886-1975) - One of the leading baritones of the interwar period.

Gino Bechi (1913-1993) - One of the leading Verdi baritones of the 1940's.

Paolo Silveri (1913-2001) - Considered one of the finest Verdi baritones of his time.

Giuseppe Taddei (1916-2010) - Considered one of the great baritones of the post-war period.

Italian Mandolinists

Francesco Bartolomeo Conti (1681-1732) - Wrote the oldest surviving mandolin method book.

Alessandro Maria Antonio Frizeri (1741-1819) - One of the most renown mandolin virtuosos.

Giovanni Fouchetti (1757-1789) - Founder of the Parisian school of mandolinists.

Bartolomeo Bortolazzi (1773-1820) - Credited with saving the mandolin from decline.

Eduardo Mezzacapo (1832-1898) - Founder of the French Mandolin School.

Pietro Armanini (1844-1895) - One of the most famous exponents of the Milanese mandolin. The first to professionally perform the mandolin before the English public.

Ferdinando de Cristofaro (1846-1890) - In his day he was considered the greatest mandolinist.

Giuseppe Bellenghi (1847-1902) - In addition to his mandolin books, he was the first to write and publish a method for the modern lute.

Ginislao Paris (c. 1852-1917) - Founder of the first mandolin orchestra in Russia.

Carlo Munier (1859-1911) - One of the principal pioneers in the revival of the mandolin.

Carlo Curti (1859-1926) - Popularized the mandolin in the Americas and created one of Mexico's oldest orchestras.

Raffaele Calace (1863-1934) - One of the most important figures in the history of mandolin.

Giuseppe Pettine (1874-1966) - His method, called the Pettine Method, is regarded as one of the most comprehensive works for mandolin ever published.

Silvio Ranieri (1882-1956) - Contributed to the immense popularity of the mandolin in the 1920's.

Giovanni Gioviale (1885-1949) - Considered one of the greatest mandolin virtuosos of all time.

Bernardo de Pace (1886-1966) - Called the “Wizard of the Mandolin”.

Carmine de Laurentiis (19th century) - One of the principal pioneers in the revival of the mandolin.

Giuseppe Anedda (1912-1997) - Helped the mandolin gain more importance in the classical music world in the 20th Century.

Italian Pianists

Muzio Clementi (1752-1832) – Composer, pianist, conductor, teacher and piano manufacturer. Called the “Father of the Piano”. Considered one of the greatest composers of all time. One of the first men to compose music for the piano and also the first virtuoso on the piano, He developed a unique style which he passed on to a generation of pianists. His piano sonatas strongly influenced Beethoven, Mozart and Haydn. He was regarded by Beethoven as the greatest piano master.

Adolfo Fumagalli (1828-1856) – Pianist and composer. Known as the “Paganini of the Piano”. Remembered primarily for his compositions for the left hand alone.

Giovanni Sgambati (1841-1914) – Composer, pianist and conductor. The most important Italian pianist of the 19th century. Together with Giuseppe Martucci, his music marked the beginning of the revival of non-operatic instrumental music in Italy.

Alfonso Rendano (1853-1931) – Pianist and composer. He invented the independent pedal for the piano.

Giuseppe Martucci (1856-1909) – Composer, pianist and conductor. Together with Giovanni Sgambati, his music marked the beginning of the revival of non-operatic instrumental music in Italy.

Ferruccio Busoni (1866-1924) – Composer, pianist and conductor. Considered one of the greatest pianists of all time.

Alfredo Casella (1883-1947) – Composer, pianist and conductor. Part of the Generation of 1880, a generation of composers inspired by Italian Renaissance and Baroque music who sought to revive non-operatic instrumental music in Italy.

Nino Rota (1911-1979) – Composer, pianist and conductor. One of the most prolific cinematic composers of all time. Remembered for his 171 film scores. He was also a celebrated pianist.

Arturo Benedetti Michelangeli (1920-1995) – Widely regarded as one of the greatest pianists of the 20th century.

Sergio Fiorentino (1927-1998) – Pianist and teacher. Regarded as one of the greatest pianists of the 20th century. Michelangeli called him “the only other pianist”.

Dino Ciani (1941-1974) – One of the great pianists of Italy. His life was tragically cut short at age 32.

Bruno Canino (b. 1935) – Pianist, harpsichordist and composer. Best known as an interpreter of contemporary music.

Roberto Cacciapaglia (b. 1953) – Pianist and composer. Known for blending electronic experimental music with the classical tradition.

Ludovico Einaudi (b. 1955) – Pianist and composer. Widely regarded as one of the greatest living composers of piano music.

Andrea Bocelli (b. 1958) – Singer, songwriter and tenor. Although best known for his opera and pop music, he also performs as a pianist.

Italian Architects

Major Italian Architects

Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (c. 80-15 BC)

Ancient Roman author, architect, civil engineer and military engineer. He designed and constructed the ancient Basilica of Fano, destroyed by the Goths in 538 AD. Best known for his work “De architectura” (“On Architecture”).

Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (c. 63-12 BC)

Ancient Roman consul, statesman, general and architect. He was responsible for the construction of some of the most notable buildings in the history of Rome, including many baths, porticoes, gardens and the original Pantheon, as well as the Roman Theatre of Merida and the Roman temple at Nimes. He renovated aqueducts and assisted Augustus in making Rome a city of marble.

Comacine Masters (c. 600's - c. 1500's)

Medieval guilds of architects, sculptors, builders and craftsmen from Lake Como, Italy. Remembered for preserving classical Roman methods of building inherited from Late Antiquity, and for developing and inventing Romanesque architecture. Constructed many churches in Italy, France, Spain, Germany, England and Scandinavia. Their architectural works include the Certosa di Pavia, the Parma Cathedral, the Modena Cathedral, the Ferrara Cathedral, the Como Cathedral, the Trento Cathedral, the Lucca Cathedral, the Orvieto Cathedral, the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna, the Basilica of San Marco in Venice, the Basilica of Sant'Ambrogio in Milan, the Basilica of San Michele Maggiore in Pavia, the Basilica of San Zeno in Verona, the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore in Bergamo, the Basilica of Sant'Abbondio in Como, the Basilica of St. Francis in Assisi, the Church of San Donato in Zara, Dalmatia, the Palatine Chapel in Aachen, the Mainz Cathedral, the Speyer Cathedral and the Worms Cathedral in Germany, and the Lund Cathedral in Sweden, among many others.

Antelami Masters or Intelvesi Masters (900's-1500's)

Branch of the Comacine Masters from Val d'Intelvi, Italy. Remembered for contributing to the development of Genoese Romanesque architecture. Their architectural works include the Genoa Cathedral, the Fidenza Cathedral, the Baptistery of Parma and the Basilica of Sant'Andrea in Vercelli, among many others.

Campionese Masters (1100's-1300's)

Branch of the Comacine Masters from Campione, Italy and surrounding area. Constructed many churches in Italy and Switzerland. Their architectural works include the Certosa di Pavia, the Parma Cathedral, the Modena Cathedral, the Trento Cathedral, the Lucca Cathedral, the Milan Cathedral, the Monza Cathedral, the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore in Bergamo, the Baptistery of Bergamo, the Ghirlandina Tower in Modena, the rose window of Cremona Cathedral and the Scaliger Tombs in Verona, among many others.

Benedetto Antelami (c. 1150-1230)

Architect and sculptor. Chief of the Comacine Masters. Remembered for contributing to the spread of Gothic art and architecture in Italy, and for synthesizing Gothic with the classical Roman traditions inherited from Late Antiquity. His architectural works include the Baptistery of Parma, the Basilica of Sant'Andrea in Vercelli and the facade of the Fidenza Cathedral.

Nicola Pisano (c. 1220-1284)

Architect and sculptor. Although best known as a sculptor, he is also remembered for constructing the second register of the Baptistery of Pisa, the largest baptistery in the world. He also co-built the Fontana Maggiore in Perugia.

Arnolfo di Cambio (c. 1240-1310)

Architect and sculptor. Although best known as a sculptor, he was also the original architect of the Florence Cathedral, the Basilica of Santa Croce and the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence. He also designed the original project for the Orvieto Cathedral the urban plan for the new city of San Giovanni Valdarno.

Giovanni Pisano (c. 1248-1315)

Architect and sculptor. Although best known as a sculptor, he was also the chief architect of the Siena Cathedral from 1285-1296. He also completed the Baptistery of Pisa, co-built the Fontana Maggiore in Perugia and modified the Cathedral of San Cerbone in Massa Marittima.

Giotto (c. 1267-1337)

Painter and architect. His reputation as a revolutionary proto-Renaissance painter overshadowed his work as an architect. His most famous architectural work is the Campanile of the Florence Cathedral, known as Giotto's Campanile.

Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446)

Architect and engineer. Recognized as the first modern engineer, first modern architect and the founder of modern architecture. One of the founding fathers of the Renaissance. Remembered also for inventing linear perspective. His best known work is the Dome of the Florence Cathedral, the largest brick dome in the world.

Michelozzo Michelozzi (1396-1472)

Architect and sculptor. Considered one of the great pioneers of architecture and one of the most influential architects of the Early Renaissance. He developed the aisleless church and pioneered the plan-type of sacred building, which is the most important in modern times. Known primarily for designing the Palazzo Medici Riccardi and the Museo Nazionale di San Marco in Florence. He also designed several Medici villas in Tuscany, initiated the Rector's Palace in Ragusa and constructed the Walls of Stagno in Dalmatia, the largest medieval wall in Europe.

Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472)

Renaissance polymath. Best known as an architect. His most notable architectural works are the Tempio Malatestiano in Rimini, the Palazzo Rucellai in Florence, the facade of the Basilica of Santa Maria Novella in Florence and the Basilica of Sant'Andrea in Mantua. His treatises on painting and architecture have been hailed as the founding texts of a new form of art. His “De re aedificatoria” (“On the Art of Building”) was the first printed book on architecture. Together with Brunelleschi, he is considered the founder of Renaissance architecture.

Francesco di Giorgio Martini (1439-1501)

Architect, painter, engineer, sculptor and medalist. Remembered for contributing to the development of modern bastion fortification systems and for pioneering the use of mining technology for warfare. Besides building almost seventy fortifications, he was one of the architects of the Ducal Palace of Urbino and built several churches and palaces.

Donato Bramante (1444-1514)

Introduced Renaissance architecture to Milan and the High Renaissance style to Rome. Chief architect of St. Peter's Basilica from 1506-1514. His plan for St. Peter's Basilica formed the basis of design executed by Michelangelo. His Tempietto in the courtyard of San Pietro in Montorio marked the beginning of the High Renaissance in Rome. He also designed the tribune and Old Sacristy of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan.

Giuliano da Sangallo (1445-1516)

Architect, sculptor and military engineer. Remembered for contributing to the development of modern bastion fortification systems. His other major works include the Medici Villa of Poggio a Caiano, the Basilica of Santa Maria delle Carceri in Prato and the dome of the Basilica of the Santa Casa in Loreto, among many others. He also assisted in the design and construction of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome.

Giovanni Antonio Amadeo (1447-1522)

Architect, sculptor and engineer. Influenced Donato Bramante and Leonardo Da Vinci. His most famous work is the Colleoni Chapel in Bergamo. He was chief architect of the Milan Cathedral from 1490-1522. He also directed the reconstruction of the Pavia Cathedral, worked on the Certosa di Pavia, the Sanctuary of the Beata Vergine dei Miracoli in Saronno, the Church of Santa Maria presso San Satiro and the Ospedale Maggiore of Milan, and completed the Tempio Civico della Beata Vergine Incoronata in Lodi. His other works include the Church of Santa Maria di Canepanova in Pavia, the Church of Santa Maria alla Fontana in Milan, the Church of San Maurizio al Monastero Maggiore in Milan, the Church of Santa Maria dei Miracoli in Brescia and the facade of the Lugano Cathedral in Switzerland.

Antonio da Sangallo the Elder (1455-1534)

Architect and military engineer. Remembered for contributing to the development of modern bastion fortification systems. He worked on the fortification of Castel Sant'Angelo in Rome. His other architectural works include the Church of San Biagio in Montepulciano, the Palazzo Nobili-Tarugi
in Montepulciano, the Old Fortress of Livorno and Forte Sangallo in Civita Castellana, among others.

Sebastiano Serlio (1475-1554)

One of the architects who spread the Italian Renaissance style throughout Western Europe, together with Vignola and Andrea Palladio. Best remembered as part of the Italian team of architects that built the Palace of Fontainebleau, one of the largest royal chateaux in France, and for introducing the principles of ancient Roman architecture into France. His influential treatise “I sette libri dell'architettura” (“Seven Books of Architecture”) helped canonize the classical orders of architecture. His treatise was highly influential in France, the Netherlands and England, and was the main inspiration for Jacobean architecture.

Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564)

Renaissance polymath. Besides being a famed painter and sculptor, he was chief architect of St. Peter's Basilica from 1546-1564. His design for the Laurentian Library in Florence pioneered Mannerist architecture. His other works include the New Sacristy of the Basilica of San Lorenzo in Florence, the Palazzo Farnese and the Basilica of St. Mary of the Angels and the Martyrs in Rome.

Baldassare Peruzzi (1481-1536)

Architect, painter and military engineer. Contemporaries considered him one of the greatest artists of the 16th century. He worked on St. Peter's Basilica with Bramante, Raphael and Antonio da Sangallo the Younger. His most important individual work is the Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne in Rome. His other works include Villa Farnesina in Rome, Villa Celsa in Sovicille and the dome of the Church of Sant'Eligio degli Orefici in Rome. He also worked on the Temple of Santa Maria della Consolazione in Todi.

Raffaello Sanzio or Raphael (1483-1520)

Architect and painter. Although best remembered as a painter, for a time he was the most important architect in Rome. He was chief architect of St. Peter's Basilica from 1514-1520. He was also responsible for the Chigi Chapel and the original design of the Villa Madama in Rome.

Antonio da Sangallo the Younger (1484-1546)

The most influential architect of his time. Best known as the chief architect of St. Peter's Basilica from 1520-1546. His other works include the Basilica of the Santa Casa in Loreto, the Roman churches of Santa Maria di Loreto, San Giovanni dei Fiorentini, Santo Spirito in Sassia and Santa Maria in Monserrato degli Spagnoli, as well as the Palazzo Farnese in Rome, the Palazzo Sacchetti in Rome, the Villa Farnese in Caprarola, the Palazzo Spada in Terni, the Pauline Chapel in the Apostolic Palace and St. Patrick's Well in Orvieto. Some of his military works include the Citadel of Ancona, the Rocca Paolina in Perugia, the Fortezza da Basso in Florence, the Forte Malatesta in Ascoli Piceno and the Bastion of Sangallo at the Aurelian Walls.

Michele Sanmicheli (1484-1559)

Architect, urban planner and military engineer. The most important Renaissance military architect. Best known for constructing the Venetian fortifications in Dalmatia, Crete and Corfu, as well as the fortifications in Venice, Verona, Padua, Brescia, Piacenza, Legnano and Senigallia, among others. His other works include the Montefiascone Cathedral, the Church of San Giorgio in Braida, the Church of the Madonna di Campagna and the Pellegrini Chapel in Verona, the Palazzo Canossa and Palazzo Bevilacqua in Verona, the Palazzo Grimani and Palazzo Corner Mocenigo in Venice, the Porta Nuova, Porta San Zeno and Porta Palio in Verona, and the City Gate of Zara in Dalmatia. He also worked on the facade of the Orvieto Cathedral.

Jacopo Sansovino (1486-1570)

Architect and sculptor. Credited with introducing classical architecture to Venice. His architectural masterpiece is the Biblioteca Marciana in Venice. He also constructed many churches in Venice, including the churches of San Martino, San Zulian and San Francesco della Vigna, as well as the Loggetta del Sansovino at St. Mark's Campanile, and built several Venetian palaces, including the Palazzo Corner, the Palazzo Dolfin Manin and the Palazzo della Zecca.

Giulio Romano (1499-1546)

Architect and painter. Pupil of Raphael. One of the pioneers of Mannerism. His works had an enormous impact on Italian Mannerist architecture. His most celebrated work is the Palazzo Te in Mantua.

Jacopo Barozzi da Vignola (1507-1573)

One of the great architects of 16th century Mannerism. Remembered as one of the architects who spread the Italian Renaissance style throughout Western Europe, together with Sebastiano Serlio and Andrea Palladio. His two great masterpieces are the Villa Farnese in Caprarola and the Church of the Gesù in Rome. His other works include the Palazzo Farnese in Piacenza and the Basilica of St. Mary of the Angels in Assisi, the seventh largest church in the world at the time. His books on architecture helped formulate the canon of classical architectural style.

Andrea Palladio (1508-1580)

Founder of Palladian architecture. Widely considered to be the greatest architect of the 16th century and one of the most influential individuals in the history of architecture. His “Four Books of Architecture” gained him worldwide recognition. His best known works are the Palladian villas of Veneto. His other major works include the Church of San Giorgio Maggiore and the Church of the Redentore in Venice, the Basilica Palladiana and the Teatro Olimpico in Vicenza. He also designed the dome of Vicenza Cathedral and built dozens of other churches and palaces.

Giorgio Vasari (1511-1574)

Painter, architect and historian. His most famous architectural work is the Uffizi Gallery, which was completed after his death. His other works include the Palazzo della Carovana in Pisa and the dome of the Basilica of Our Lady of Humility in Pistoia. He renovated the Palazzo Vecchio, the Church of Santa Maria Novella and the Basilica of Santa Croce in Florence. He also coined the term 'Gothic' to describe the art and architecture which preceded the Renaissance.

Galeazzo Alessi (1512-1572)

One of the great architects of the late 16th century. His works include the Basilica of Santa Maria Assunta in Genoa, Villa Giustiniani-Cambiaso in Genoa, Villa delle Peschiere in Genoa, the dome of Genoa Cathedral, the Palazzo Marino in Milan, the Church of San Barnaba in Milan, the facade of the Church of Santa Maria presso San Celso in Milan and the interior of the Cathedral of San Ruffo in Assisi, among many others. He designed the city plan for the Sacred Mount of Varallo and helped design the Basilica of St. Mary of the Angels in Assisi, the seventh largest church in the world at the time. He also designed churches and palaces in France, Germany and Flanders, and produced designs for El Escorial in Spain.

Giacomo della Porta (1531-1602)

Architect and sculptor. One of the most important architects of the Roman Renaissance. Best known as the chief architect of St. Peter's Basilica from 1573-1602 and for completing the Dome of St. Peter's Basilica with Domenico Fontana. His other works include the Palazzo Albertoni Spinola and the Palazzo della Sapienza in Rome, Villa Aldobrandini in Frascati, and the Roman churches of Santa Maria ai Monti, Sant'Atanasio dei Greci, Trinità dei Monti and San Paolo alle Tre Fontane, among others. He also completed the Church of the Gesù and the Palazzo Senatorio in Rome, and designed several Roman fountains, including the Fontana del Moro, the Fontana delle Tartarughe, the Fontana del Trullo, the Fountain of the Pantheon and the Fountain of Neptune.

Domenico Fontana (1543-1607)

Architect and engineer. Best known for completing the Dome of St. Peter's Basilica with Giacomo della Porta. Also known for restoring the Lateran Obelisk and for erecting the Vatican Obelisk in St. Peter's Square. Also erected the Flaminio Obelisk and the Esquiline Obelisk at Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome. He worked on the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran, the Lateran Palace, the Quirinal Palace, the Vatican Library, the Royal Palace of Naples and the Church of San Luigi dei Francesi in Rome. He also designed the Fontana dell'Acqua Felice and the Fontana dell'Acqua Paola in Rome. In 1599 he discovered the lost city of Pompeii.

Vincenzo Scamozzi (1548-1616)

Considered one of the fathers of Neo-Classicism and Neo-Palladian architecture. Completed or reworked several projects initiated by Andrea Palladio, including the Church of San Giorgio Maggiore in Venice, Villa Capra Rotonda and the Teatro Olimpico in Vicenza. His other works include Villa Molin near Padua and the Procuratie Nuove of St. Mark's Square in Venice. He also designed the city of Palmanova. His treatise, “L’Idea dell’Architettura Universale” (“The Idea of a Universal Architecture”) was one of the last Renaissance works on architectural theory.

Carlo Maderno (1556-1629)

Remembered as one of the fathers of Baroque architecture and as the chief architect of St. Peter's basilica from 1602-1620. His facades were of key importance in the development of Italian Baroque. His most renown work is the facade of St. Peter's Basilica. His other major works were the Cerasi Chapel, the Church of Santa Susanna at the Baths of Diocletian, the Basilica of Sant'Andrea della Valle, the Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria and the facade of the Basilica of Santa Maria sopra Minerva in Rome. His other works include the Roman churches of Gesù e Maria, San Giacomo degli Incurabili, Santa Lucia in Selci and San Giovanni dei Fiorentini. He also worked on the Villa Aldobrandini in Frascati, the Quirinal Palace, the Papal Palace of Castel Gandolfo, the Palazzo Barberini, the Palazzo Mattei, the Palazzo Doria-Pamphili and the Caetani Chapel in Rome. His design for the Marian column at the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore became the model for Marian columns in Catholic countries.

Pietro da Cortona (1596-1669)

Architect and painter. Although best known as a painter, he was also one of the three fathers of Baroque architecture, together with Borromini and Bernini. His most important architectural work is the Church of Santi Luca e Martina near the Roman Forum. He also renovated the facade of the Church of Santa Maria della Pace in Rome.

Baldassare Longhena (1598-1682)

Remembered for constructing some of the most iconic structures in Venice. His most notable work is the Basilica of Santa Maria della Salute. Hid other works in Venice include the Ca' Rezzonico, Ca' Pesaro, Palazzo Belloni-Battagia, Church of Santa Maria degli Scalzi and the Church of the Ospedaletto. He also completed the Procuratie Nuove of St. Mark's Square and designed the Chioggia Cathedral.

Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680)

Architect and sculptor. One of the fathers of Baroque architecture. Chief architect of St. Peter's Basilica from 1629-1680. His most notable design is St. Peter's Square. Other notable works include the Palazzo Barberini, the Palazzo Montecitorio, the Altieri Chapel, the Cornaro Chapel, the Church of Sant'Andrea al Quirinale in Rome, the Church of Santa Maria Assunta in Ariccia and the Church of St. Thomas of Villanova at Castel Gandolfo. He completed the Chigi Chapel initiated by Raphael, and restored the Scala Regia in the Apostolic Palace. He also designed numerous fountains in Rome, including the Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi.

Francesco Borromini (1599-1667)

Recognized as the primary founder of Baroque architecture. His most notable works include the forced perspective colonnade in the Palazzo Spada, the Church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, the Church of Sant'Agnese in Agone and the Church of Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza in Rome. He also renovated the interior of the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran.

Guarino Guarini (1624-1683)

Italian polymath and Catholic priest. One of the leading exponents of Piedmontese Baroque. His architectural works include the Royal Church of San Lorenzo in Turin, the Chapel of the Holy Shroud at Turin Cathedral, the Palazzo Carignano, the Castle of Racconigi and the Church of Santa Maria in Araceli in Vicenza.

Carlo Fontana (1638-1714)

Partly responsible for the classicizing direction taken by Late Baroque Roman architecture. His greatest work is the facade of the Church of San Marcello al Corso. His other works include the Baptistery Chapel in St. Peter's Basilica, the portico of the Basilica of Santa Maria in Trastevere, the interior of the Basilica of the Santi Apostoli, the Monumental Complex of San Michele a Ripa Grande and the Cybo Chapel in Rome. He also completed some of Bernini's projects, including the Church of Santa Maria in Montesanto and the Palazzo Montecitorio in Rome.

Filippo Juvarra (1678-1736)

The most gifted architect of his time. His principle works include the Stupinigi Palace, the Palace of Venaria, the Basilica of Superga, the Palazzo Madama in Turin, the garden facade of the Royal Palace of La Granja in Spain and the original design for the Royal Palace of Madrid. He also designed the Antamori Chapel in Rome, the Church of the Madonna del Carmine in Turin, the facade of the Church of Santa Cristina in Turin and the Campanile of the Belluno Cathedral, among many others, and worked on the Church of San Gregorio in Messina, which was destroyed by an earthquake in 1908.

Domenico Trezzini (1670-1734)

The first great builder of St. Petersburg. Best remembered for introducing Baroque architecture to St. Petersburg and for founding the style known as Petrine Baroque. His most notable works in St. Petersburg are the Peter and Paul Fortress, the Peter and Paul Cathedral, the Twelve Colleges, the Summer Palace of Peter the Great and the Church of the Annunciation at the Alexander Nevsky Monastery.

Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli (1700-1771)

Best remembered for developing a unique style of architecture in Russia known as Elizabethan Baroque or Rastrellian Baroque. His major works include the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, the Catherine Palace in Tsarskoye Selo, the Smolny Convent and St. Andrew's Church in Kiev. His other works include the Stroganov Palace, the Vorontsov Palace, the Peterhof Palace, the Hermitage Pavilion in Tsarskoye Selo, the Mariyinsky Palace in Kiev, as well as the Rundale Palace and the Jelgava Palace in Latvia.

Luigi Vanvitelli (1700-1773)

Architect and painter. The most prominent architect in 18th century Italy. His most famous work is the Royal Palace of Caserta. His other works include the facade of the Palazzo Poli behind the Trevi Fountain in Rome, the Lazzaretto of Ancona, the Aqueduct of Vanvitelli in Caserta, the Palazzo Doria d'Angri and Piazza Dante in Naples. He also worked on the Basilica of St. Mary of the Angels and the Martyrs in Rome and co-built the Chapel of St. John the Baptist in Lisbon, Portugal with Nicola Salvi.

Giacomo Quarenghi (1744-1817)

Architect and painter. Remembered as the foremost and most prolific practitioner of Palladian architecture in Russia. He has been described as the last of the great architects of Italy. He constructed many buildings throughout Russia. Some of his more notable works include the Alexander Palace in Tsarskoye Selo, the Smolny Institute, the Russian Academy of Sciences, the Narva Triumphal Arch and the Hermitage Theatre in St. Petersburg. He also worked on the Winter Palace and the Pavlovsk Palace.

Giuseppe Valadier (1762-1839)

Architect, urban planner and archaeologist. Remembered as the chief exponent of Neoclassical architecture in Italy. His works include the Church of San Pantaleo in Rome, the Church of the Santissimo Salvatore in Terracina, the dome of the Church of Santa Maria del Suffragio in L'Aquila, Villa Torlonia in Rome, Piazza San Giovanni in Laterano and Piazza del Popolo in Rome. He also renovated Spoleto Cathedral, reconstructed Urbino Cathedral, restored the Arch of Titus in Rome, deisgned the two clocks on the facade of St. Peter's Basilica and designed the urban plan for Fiumicino, the first planned suburb of modern Rome.


Minor Italian Architects

Lucius Cocceius Auctus (1st century BC - 1st century AD)

Best known for building the original Pantheon for Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa.

Maginardo Aretino (900's-1000's)

Considered the most erudite architect of his time. Remembered for participating in the reconstruction of the Arezzo Cathedral.

Guglielmo da Volpiano (962-1031)

Monk, architect and saint. He constructed many religious buildings in Italy and France. Contributed to the spread of Baroque architecture in France. Remembered for designing the Abbey of Mont-Saint-Michel in France and the Abbey of Fruttuaria in Italy.

Lanfranco (1000's-1100's)

Remembered for his only known work, the Modena Cathedral.

Diotisalvi (1100's)

Remembered as the original architect of the Baptistery of Pisa and the Leaning Tower of Pisa.

Riccardo da Lentini (1200's)

Remembered for constructing castles and forts in Sicily, including the Swabian Castle of Augusta, Milazzo Castle and Castello Maniace in Syracuse. He also built the Tower of Frederick II in Enna and the Castello dell'Imperatore in Prato. The Castel del Monte in Andria is also attributed to him.

Camaino di Crescentino (c. 1260-1338)

Remembered as the chief architect of the Siena Cathedral from 1299-1317 and for building the Baptistery of Siena.

Lorenzo Maitani (c. 1275-1330)

Remembered for designing the facade of the Orvieto Cathedral.

Filippo Calendario (c. 1300's-1355)

Designer and co-builder of the Doge's Palace in Venice.

Pietro Baseggio (c. 1300-1354)

Co-builder of the Doge's Palace in Venice.

Orcagna (c. 1310-1368)

Architect, painter and sculptor. Consultant at the Florence Cathedral. Supervised the construction of the facade of the Orvieto Cathedral.

Filarete (c. 1400-1469)

Architect, sculptor, medallist and architectural theorist. Best known for building the Torre del Filarete at Sforza Castle in Milan and for designing the ideal city of Sforzinda, the first ideal city plan of the Renaissance.

Bernardo Rossellino (1409-1464)

Architect and sculptor. Although best known as a sculptor, he is also remembered for designing the buildings of Piazza Pio II in Pienza, including the Palazzo Piccolomini, the Palazzo Vescovile, the Palazzo Comunale and the Pienza Cathedral.

Giorgio Orsini da Sebenico (1410-1475)

Architect and sculptor. One of the most important Renaissance artists of Dalmatia. Best remembered for designing the Cathedral of San Giacomo in Sebenico, Dalmatia. His other works include the Loggia dei Mercanti in Ancona, the facade of the Church of San Francesco alle Scale, the portal of the Church of Sant'Agostino in Ancona and the Rector's Palace in Ragusa, among others.

Andrea Bregno (c. 1418-1503)

Architect and sculptor. His architectural works include the Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo and the Palazzo della Cancelleria in Rome.

Luciano Laurana (c. 1420-1479)

One of the most important architects of the middle of the 15th century. Contributed to the development of Renaissance architecture. Remembered for his work on the Ducal Palace of Urbino. He also worked on the Triumphal Arch of the Castel Nuovo in Naples.

Giuliano da Maiano (1432-1490)

Architect, sculptor, military engineer and wood inlayer. His architectural works include the Santa Fina Chapel in San Gimignano, the Basilica of the Santa Casa in Loreto, the Faenza Cathedral, the Palazzo Pazzi in Florence, the Palazzo Spannocchi in Siena and the Porta Capuana in Naples, among others.

Giovannino de' Dolci (c. 1435-1485)

Remembered for building the Sistine Chapel based on a design by Baccio Pontelli.

Gian Giacomo Dolcebuono (1445-1510)

Architect and sculptor. Co-architect of the Pavia Cathedral, the Tempio Civico della Beata Vergine Incoronata in Lodi, the Church of San Maurizio al Monastero Maggiore and the Church of Santa Maria presso San Celso in Milan. Engineer on the Milan Cathedral from 1490-1503. He also worked on the Certosa di Pavia.

Baccio Pontelli (c. 1450-1494)

Remembered for designing the Sistine Chapel. He is also known for his military fortifications, including the Rocca Roveresca in Senigallia, among many others. His other works include the Ponte Sisto and the portico of the Basilica of the Santi Apostoli in Rome.

Giovanni Battagio (1500's)

Architect and engineer. He designed the Sanctuary of Santa Maria della Croce in Crema and the Tempio Civico della Beata Vergine Incoronata in Lodi, one of the masterworks of the Renaissance in Lombardy. He also worked on the Church of Santa Maria presso San Satiro in Milan.

Bartolomeo Ammannati (1511-1592)

Architect and sculptor. Considered one of the most important artists of the 16th century. Remembered for designing the Roman College, the courtyard of the Palazzo Pitti, the Ponte Santa Trinita and the Fountain of Neptune in Florence. He also completed the Palazzo Budini Gattai in Florence, worked on the Villa Giulia in Rome and helped design the Biblioteca Marciana in Venice.

Antonio da Ponte (1512-1597)

Architect and engineer. Remembered for rebuilding of the Rialto Bridge in Venice. He also worked on the Doge's Palace in Venice and completed the the Church of the Redentore in Venice.

Pirro Ligorio (1513-1583)

Architect and painter. Chief architect of St. Peter's Basilica from 1564-1568. His works include the Casina Pio IV in the Vatican Gardens and the fountains at Villa d'Este in Tivoli, among others. He is particularly remembered for his role in the restoration of the Acqua Vergine, an ancient Roman aqueduct constructed by Agrippa. He also designed earthquake-resistant structures in Ferrara, anticipating modern anti-seismic practices.

Pellegrino Tibaldi (1527-1596)

Architect, sculptor and painter. Although best remembered as a painter, he was also a prominent architect. He was chief architect of the Milan Cathedral from 1567-1585. His other architectural works include the Basilica of San Gaudenzio in Novara, the Tempio Civico di San Sebastiano in Milan, the Church of San Fedele in Milan, the Church of Santi Gervasio e Protasio in Parabiago, the facade of the Sanctuary of the Beata Vergine dei Miracoli in Saronno, the Ghislieri College in Pavia, the Almo Collegio Borromeo in Pavia, Villa d'Este in Cernobbio and the Fontana del Calamo in Ancona, among others.

Bernardo Buontalenti (1531-1608)

Renaissance polymath. One of the key architects of Florentine Mannerism. He designed fortifications, villas and gardens. His works include the Palazzo di Bianca Cappello, the Forte Belvedere and the Buontalento Grotto in the Boboli Gardens at the Palazzo Pitti in Florence. He also worked on the Medici Villa of Cerreto Guidi, the Medici Villa L'Ambrogiana in Montelupo Fiorentino, as well as the city walls of Pistoia, Grosseto, Prato, Portoferraio and Naples.

Martino Longhi the Elder (1534-1591)

His most famous work is the Palazzo Borghese in Rome. He also worked on the Palazzo Altemps in Rome and the Monumental Complex of Santa Croce in Bosco Marengo. He designed the churches of Santa Maria della Consolazione and San Girolamo degli Schiavoni in Rome, renovated the Palazzo Cesi-Armellini and built the tower of the Palazzo Senatorio in Rome.

Francesco Grimaldi (1543-1613)

Architect and Catholic priest. Contributed to the spread of Baroque architecture. His works include the Basilica of Sant'Andrea della Valle in Rome, the Basilica of Santa Maria degli Angeli a Pizzofalcone, the Basilica of San Paolo Maggiore in Naples. the Church of the Santi Apostoli in Naples and the Royal Chapel of the Treasure of San Gennaro, among others.

Flaminio Ponzio (1560-1613)

He designed the Basilica of St. Sebastian Outside the Walls and the Palazzo Pallavicini Rospigliosi in Rome. His other works include the Pauline Chapel in the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore and the Villa Borghese Pinciana in Rome. He also worked on the Palazzo Borghese in Rome and Villa Torlonia in Frascati.

Girolamo Rainaldi (1570-1655)

His works include the Church of Sant'Agnese in Agone, the Palazzo Pamphili in Rome, the facade of the Church of Gesù e Maria in Rome and the dome of the Church of the Santissima Annunziata in Parma. He also completed the Palazzo Albertoni Spinola in Rome, worked on the Villa Borghese Gardens in Rome and expanded the Palazzo del Giardino in Parma.

Martino Longhi the Younger (1602-1660)

Considered one of the most original architects of Roman Baroque. His most famous work is the facade of the Church of Santi Vincenzo e Anastasio a Trevi in Rome. His other works include the facade of the Church of Sant'Antonio dei Portoghesi in Rome, the facade of the Church of San Giovanni Calibita on Tiber Island and the Church of Sant'Antonio in Campo Marzio. He also completed the Basilica of San Carlo al Corso in Rome.

Carlo Rainaldi (1611-1691)

One of the leading Roman architects of 17th century. His works include the twin churches of Santa Maria dei Miracoli and Santa Maria in Montesanto, the Church of Santa Maria in Portico in Campitelli, the Church of Sant'Agnese in Agone, the facade of Sant'Andrea della Valle and the apside of the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome.

Giuseppe Zimbalo (1620-1710)

Architect and sculptor. The most prominent Lecce Baroque architect. He designed the Basilica of San Giovanni Battista al Rosario in Lecce, part of the facade of the Basilica of Santa Croce in Lecce and the upper facade of the Cathedral of Sant'Agata in Gallipoli. He also completed the Lecce Cathedral and sculpted the Column of Sant'Oronzo.

Gerolamo Frigimelica Roberti (1633-1732)

Architect, librettist and poet. His architectural designs include the Palazzo Pisani in Venice, the Villa Pisani in Stra, the Church of Santa Maria del Torresino and the Church of Santa Lucia in Padua, among others.

Mattia de Rossi (1637-1695)

Chief architect of St. Peter's Basilica from 1680. His works include the Palazzo Muti Papazzurri in Rome, the facade of the Church of San Francesco a Ripa in Rome, the facade of Church of Santa Rita da Cascia alle Vergini and the cantoria of the Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria in Rome. He designed the Monument to Clement X in St. Peter's Basilica and worked on the Monumental Complex of San Michele a Ripa Grande in Rome. He also completed the Church of Sant'Andrea al Quirinale in Rome initiated by Bernini and the Church of Sant'Andrea delle Fratte in Rome initiated by Borromini.

Andrea Palma (1644-1730)

Architect and friar. One of the most important Sicilian Baroque architects. His most famous work is the facade of Syracuse Cathedral.

Tommaso Maria Napoli (1659-1725)

Architect, monk, engineer and mathematician. Best known for building the Villa Valguarnera and Villa Palagonia in Bagheria, Sicily.

Domenico Antonio Vaccaro (1678-1745)

Architect, sculptor and painter. Remembered for building numerous churches in Naples, including the churches of San Michele Arcangelo and Santa Maria della Concezione a Montecalvario. He completed the Church of Santa Maria della Stella and the Obelisk of San Domenico in Naples. He worked on the Neapolitan churches of Gesù Nuovo, Santa Maria in Portico, Santa Maria di Monteverginella and Santa Maria di Costantinopoli, the basilicas of San Domenico Maggiore and Santa Chiara, and the Chapel of Monte dei Poveri, among many others. He also built the Palazzo dell'Immacolatella in Naples and the Church of San Michele Arcangelo in Anacapri, and restored the Abbey of Goleto.

Francesco De Sanctis (1679-1731)

Remembered for designing the Spanish Steps and the facade of the Church of the Santissima Trinità dei Pellegrini in Rome.

Giorgio Massari (1687-1766)

Remembered for constructing some of the most iconic structures in Venice, including the Palazzo Grassi, the Church of the Gesuati, the Church of San Marcuola and the Church of the Pietà. He also completed the Ca' Rezzonico. Outside of Venice he designed the Villa Lattes in Istrana, Villa Giovannelli in Noventa Padovana, Villa Cordellina in Montecchio Maggiore and the Church of Santa Maria della Pace in Brescia. He also renovated Padua Cathedral and Udine Cathedral.

Alessandro Galilei (1691-1737)

Architect and mathematician. Remembered for designing the facade of the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran, the facade of the Church of San Giovanni dei Fiorentini in Rome and the Castletown House in Ireland.

Nicola Salvi (1697-1751)

Remembered for designing the Trevi Fountain in Rome. He also worked on the Palazzo Chigi-Odescalchi in Rome and co-built the Chapel of St. John the Baptist in Lisbon, Portugal with Luigi Vanvitelli.

Rosario Gagliardi (1698-1762)

One of the leading Sicilian Baroque architects. His best known works are the Cathedral of San Giorgio in Modica and the Cathedral of San Giorgio in Ragusa.

Benedetto Alfieri (1699-1767)

Best known for his work on the facade of the Vercelli Cathedral. He also worked on the Stupinigi Palace and the Piazza Castello in Turin, and completed the facade of the St. Pierre Cathedral in Geneva, Switzerland. His greatest work, the Teatro Regio in Turin, later burned down. His other works include the Palazzo Solaro del Borgo in Turin and the Campanile of San Gaudenzio in Novara.

Ferdinando Fuga (1699-1782)

Remembered for his works in Rome and Naples. In Rome he designed the Palazzo Corsini, the Palazzo della Consulta, the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare, the facade of the Church of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere and the facade of the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore. In Naples he designed the Albergo dei Poveri and the facade of the Church of the Girolamini in Naples, among others. He also worked on the Palermo Cathedral.

Francesco Maria Preti (1701-1774)

Best known for working on the Villa Pisani in Stra. He also designed the Cathedral of Castelfranco Veneto, Villa Corner della Regina in Cavasagra and Villa Spineda in Venegazzù.

Giovanni Battista Vaccarini (1702-1768)

Remembered for his works in Catania, including the Church of the Badia of Sant'Agata, the Palazzo dell'Università and the facade of the Catania Cathedral, among others.

Vincenzo Sinatra (1707-1765)

Remembered for helping to rebuild the city of Noto and for contributing to the development of Baroque architecture into Rococo and Neoclassical. His works include the Noto Cathedral, the Palazzo Ducezio in Noto and the Loggia of Santa Maria Maggiore in Ispica, among others.

Nicolò Pacassi (1716-1790)

Remembered for his works in the Habsburg States. He worked on Schönbrunn Castle in Vienna, Hetzendorf Castle in Vienna, the Winter Palace of Prince Eugene in Vienna, the Carinthian Gate Theatre in Vienna, Ballhausplatz in Vienna, Buda Castle in Budapest, Prague Castle and St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague, among others.

Francesco Sabatini (1722-1797)

Remembered for his works in Spain. His works include the Plaza Mayor and the Puerta de Alcala in Madrid, among others. He also worked on the Royal Palace of Madrid.

Giuseppe Piermarini (1734-1808)

Best known for building the Teatro alla Scala in Milan. His other great work is the Royal Villa of Monza.

Carlo Barabino (1768-1835)

One of the most important architects in Genoa in the 19th century. His best known works are the original Teatro Carlo Felice in Genoa, the facade of the Basilica of Santa Maria Assunta in Genoa and the design for the Monumental Cemetery of Staglieno.

Alessandro Antonelli (1798-1888)

Remembered for building the Novara Cathedral, the Basilica of St. Gaudenzio in Novara and the Mole Antonelliana in Turin, which for a time was the tallest building in the whole world.

Giuseppe Mengoni (1829-1877)

Best known for building the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II in Milan.

Ernesto Basile (1857-1932)

Remembered as one of the pioneers of Art Nouveau in Italy. His works include the New Wing and the Transatlantico of the Palazzo Montecitorio in Rome, the Teatro Massimo in Palermo and the Palazzo San Giorgio in Reggio Calabria, among many others.

Max Fabiani (1865-1962)

Architect and urban planner. Remembered for his works in Austria, Slovenia and Friuli-Venezia Giulia. His works include the National Hall in Trieste and the Urania Palace in Vienna, among many others.

Marcello Piacentini (1881-1960)

Architect and urban planner. Remembered as one of the main proponents of Fascist architecture and monumentalism. His works include the Bolzano Victory Monument, the Victory Arch of Genoa, the new campus of Sapienza University in Rome and the Via della Conciliazione connecting St. Peter's Square to Castel Sant'Angelo. He also designed the urban plan for the EUR district in Rome.