Italian Violinists

Major Italian Violinists

Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713)

Baroque composer and violinist. His music was key in the development of the modern genres of sonata and concerto, in establishing the preeminence of the violin, and as the first coalescing of modern tonality and functional harmony. He is remembered for inventing the sonata, for transforming the violin from an ensemble instrument to a solo instrument, and for popularizing and developing the concerto grosso. Widely regarded as the greatest violinist prior to Vivaldi. His pupils included Francesco Geminiani, Pietro Locatelli, Pietro Castrucci, Francesco Gasparini, Giovanni Battista Somis, Francesco Antonio Bonporti, Michele Mascitti and Giovanni Stefano Carbonelli.

Giuseppe Torelli (1658-1709)

Baroque composer, violinist and violist. He is most remembered for contributing to the development of the instrumental concerto, especially the concerto grosso and the solo concerto, as well as for being the most prolific Baroque composer for trumpets. His brother Felice Torelli was a noted painter.

Tomaso Antonio Vitali (1663-1745)

Italian composer and violinist. He is mainly remembered for his Chaconne in G minor for violin and continuo. The piece was so innovative and ahead of its time that it has caused some modern musicologists to speculate that it may have been composed by another composer during the Romantic era. However, the authenticity of Vitali's work is beyond question and is preserved in an 18th century manuscript.

Tomaso Albinoni (1671-1751)

Baroque composer and violinist. Although famous in his day as an opera composer, today he is mainly remembered for his instrumental music. His Adagio in G minor (partially reconstructed by Remo Giazotto) is one of the most frequently recorded pieces of Baroque music. He is also credited with being the first Italian to compose oboe concerti. The oboe concerti in his Op. 7 were the first of their kind to be published. Much of his work was lost during the latter years of World War II with the Allied bombing of the Saxon State Library in Dresden, where his manuscripts were stored.

Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741)

Baroque composer, violinist and Catholic priest. Recognized as one of the greatest Baroque composers. He also has the distinction of being one of the greatest violinist of all time—second only to Niccolò Paganini. He composed many instrumental concerti for the violin and other instruments, as well as sacred choral works and more than forty operas. His best-known work is a series of violin concerti known as the Four Seasons.

Francesco Manfredini (1684-1762)

Baroque composer, violinist and church musician. He was a leading figure in the development of the concerto grosso. Much of his music was destroyed after his death; only 43 published works and a handful of manuscripts are known.

Francesco Geminiani (1687-1762)

Italian composer, violinist and music theorist. Geminiani was a violinist of the highest order, known for his harmony and expressive rhythms. His significance today is largely due to his 1751 treatise “The Art of Playing on the Violin”, which is the best known summation of the 18th century Italian method of violin playing and is an invaluable source for the study of late Baroque performance practice.

Francesco Maria Veracini (1690-1768)

Italian composer and violinist. One of the great violinists of the early 18th century, he was famed throughout Europe for his performances as well as his innovative compositions. He was Handel's greatest rival as an opera composer and strongly denounced Handel for plagiarizing his works. He is best known for his violin sonatas. The asteroid 10875 Veracini was named after him.

Giuseppe Tartini (1692-1770)

Baroque composer, violinist and music theorist. He was the first known owner of a violin made by the famed luthier Antonio Stradivari. Tartini's violin school, established in 1726, attracted students from all over Europe. He is credited with the discovery of sum and difference tones (combination tone). His most famous work is the “Devil's Trill Sonata”, which remains one of the most difficult pieces to play on the violin.

Pietro Antonio Locatelli (1695-1764)

Italian composer and violinist. Locatelli was a master of violin technique. It is said that he never played a wrong note, except once when his finger accidentally slipped. He was the first great violinist who practiced virtuosity, earning him the title “Father of modern instrumental virtuosity”. He is best known for his “L'arte del violino”, a collection of 12 violin concerti and 24 caprices. This work had an immense influence on the development of violin technique, especially in France, and strongly influenced Paganini.

Giovanni Battista Pergolesi (1710-1736)

Italian composer, violinist and organist. Although he initially earned a high reputation as a violinist, most of his compositions are not for the violin. His works have appeared in several films. His best-known works include his Stabat Mater and the opera “La serva padrona”, which was one of the most celebrated stage works of the 18th century.

Pietro Nardini (1722-1793)

Italian composer and violinist who worked in both the Baroque and Classical era traditions. The most famous pupil of Giuseppe Tartini. His works are known for their melodious tunes and are valued today as technical studies. Leopold Mozart, the father of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, said of Nardini: “The beauty, purity and equality of his tone, and the tastefulness of his cantabile playing, cannot be surpassed.” Among his best known works are Sonata in D major and Concerto in E minor.

Giovanni Battista Viotti (1755-1824)

Italian composer and violinist. Famed for his virtuosity and lyrical tunefulness. Considered the greatest violinist of his time. His most notable compositions are his 29 violin concerti, which were an influence on Ludwig van Beethoven. His Concerto No. 22 in A minor is still performed very frequently. The incipit of his “Tema e variazioni”, composed in 1781, was later plagiarized by Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle, who included the incipit in “La Marseillaise”—the national anthem of France since 1795—without crediting Viotti.

Niccolò Paganini (1782-1840)

Italian violinist, violist, guitarist and composer. He was the most celebrated violin virtuoso of his time, and left his mark as one of the pillars of modern violin technique. Universally recognized as the greatest violinist of all time. His 24 caprices for violin, especially his Caprice No. 24, are among the best known of his compositions and have served as an inspiration for many prominent composers.

Antonio Bazzini (1818-1897)

Italian violinist and composer. As a composer his most enduring work is his chamber music which earned him a central place in the Italian instrumental renaissance of the 19th century. However his success as a composer was overshadowed by his reputation as one of the finest concert violinists of the nineteenth century. His most notable work is the Dies Irae portion of Messa per Rossini.

Salvatore Accardo (b. 1941)

Italian violinist and conductor. He is considered one of the greatest Italian violinists of the 20th century and one of the greatest living violinists. He is best known for his interpretations of the works of Niccolò Paganini, and is widely regarded as the greatest interpreter of Paganini.

Uto Ughi (b. 1944)

Italian violinist and conductor. He is considered one of the greatest Italian violinists of the 20th century and one of the greatest living violinists. He is the founder of several music festivals, instituted the musical prize “Una vita per la Musica” (“A life for Music”), and has won numerous awards.


Minor Italian Violinists

Andrea Gabrieli (c. 1533-1585)

Italian composer and organist. Although not remembered as a violinist, Gabrieli composed the world's first violin composition, published after his death by his nephew Giovanni Gabrieli in 1587.

Biagio Marini (1594-1663)

Italian violinist and composer. One of the earliest professional violinists. He contributed to the early development of the string idiom, of the baroque solo and trio sonata idioms, and introduced the first explicitly notated tremolo effects into his music. He was also among the first composers, after Marco Uccellini, to call for scordatura tunings. Most of his works have been lost.

Carlo Ambrogio Lonati (c. 1645-1712)

Italian composer, violinist and singer. One of the most virtuoso violinists of his century. His violin works reveal a bold fluent style.

Giovanni Battista Bassani (c. 1647-1716)

Italian composer, violinist and organist. Bassani was a celebrated violinist in his own time. His trio sonatas are his best-known and most-commonly performed pieces in modern times.

Nicola Matteis (1650-1713)

Italian composer and violinist. He was the first notable Italian Baroque violinist in London. Together with other Italian violinists, he established an Italian school of violin in England which greatly influenced English musicians, especially Henry Purcell. He was compared to Arcangelo Corelli in his own lifetime, but his works were mostly forgotten until the 20th century.

Evaristo Felice Dall'Abaco 1675-1742)

Italian composer, violinist and cellist. He is said to have perfected the Baroque sonata and concerto.

Antonio Montanari (1676-1737)

Italian violinist and composer. His concerti rank amongst the most impressive achievements in the history of Italian violin music

Pietro Castrucci (1679-1752)

Italian violinist and composer. Known as one of the finest virtuoso violinists of his generation. He invented the violetta marina, which was a variation of the viola d'amore.

Giuseppe Valentini (1681-1753)

Italian violinist, painter, poet and composer. Known chiefly as a composer of inventive instrumental music. Although overshadowed during his lifetime by Corelli, Vivaldi and Locatelli, his contribution to Italian baroque music is noteworthy. His works were published throughout Europe.

Giovanni Battista Somis (1686-1763)

Italian violinist and composer. Founder of the Piedmontese school of violin. His brilliant and emotional style influenced the development of violin playing. He composed over 150 concerti. His pupils included Felice Giardini, Gaetano Pugnani, Giovanni Battista Viotti, Jean-Marie Leclair, Louis-Gabriel Guillemain and Chabran.

Felice Giardini (1716-1796)

Italian composer and violinist. In the mid 1750's and 1760's he was widely regarded as the greatest musical performing artist.

Antonio Lolli (c. 1725-1802)

Italian violinist and composer. One of the foremost Italian violinists of the 18th century.

Michele Stratico (1728-1783)

Italian composer and violinist. He wrote no less than 283 instrumental works, including more than 170 sonatas for violin and bass, which stand at a turning point between late Baroque and early Classicism.

Gaetano Pugnani (1731-1798)

Italian composer and violinist. During his lifetime he was one of the most important violinists in Europe. His most famous pupil was Giovanni Battista Viotti. In the 20th century the composer Fritz Kreisler used Pugnani's name to publish his own works.

Maddalena Laura Sirmen (1745-1818)

Italian composer, violinist and singer. During her lifetime she was considered one of the finest and most famous violinists and composers ever produced by the Venetian Ospedali Grandi. Remembered as a dynamic inventor and brilliant performer in 18th century classical music.

Giuseppe Cambini (1746-1825)

Italian composer and violinist. Although best remembered as a symphonic composer, he wrote more than 100 string quartets.

Federigo Fiorillo (1755-1823)

Italian composer, violinist and mandolinist. He is best remembered for his 36 caprices for violin.

Alessandro Rolla (1757-1841)

Italian composer, violinist, violist and conductor. He was important in the development of violin and viola technique. He is best remembered as the teacher of Niccolò Paganini. Many of Rolla's technical innovations were later utilized by Paganini, including the left-hand pizzicato, chromatic ascending and descending scales, the use of very high positions on violin and viola, and octave passages.

Luigi Tomasini (1779-1858)

Italian composer and violinist. Mostly remembered as the leader of Prince Esterházy's court orchestra, which was directed by Joseph Haydn.

Giovanni Ricordi (1785-1853)

Italian violinist. Best remembered as the founder of the classical music publishing company Casa Ricordi. It was the largest music publisher in southern Europe and its archive is still today one of the most important sources of classical music in the world. Casa Ricordi published works by Gioachino Rossini, Gaetano Donizetti, Vincenzo Bellini, Giuseppe Verdi and Giacomo Puccini.

Milanollo Sisters (1827-1904; 1832-1848)

Italian violinists. As child prodigies they toured Europe extensively in the 19th century. Remembered as the first women to achieve enduring fame as violinists.

Leandro Campanari (1859-1939)

Italian violinist, conductor and composer. Founder of the Campanari String Quartet. He worked with the Boston Symphony Orchestra, New England Conservatory of Music, Cincinnati College of Music, Imperial Institute of London, Hammerstein's Opera Company, Philadelphia Symphony Orchestra and California Conservatory of Music.

Pina Carmirelli (1914-1993)

Italian violinist and musicologist. She had a long concert career both as a soloist and in chamber groups, including the Boccherini Quintet, Carmirelli Quartet and Quintetto Fauré.

Carlotta Nobile (1988-2013)

Italian violinist, art historian, artistic director, writer and blogger. She was among the most popular young Italian violinists of her time. She is remembered both as a violinist and for her deep religious faith in the face of her premature death at age 24.

History of Grigioni

Grigioni, also known as Graubünden or Grisons, is a canton of Switzerland and a historical Italian region currently divided between Italian-speaking, Romansh-speaking and German-speaking populations. The cantons of Ticino and Grigioni together form Svizzera Italiana or Italian Switzerland.

In ancient times the area of southern and eastern Switzerland was inhabited by a group of tribes known as the Rhaetians. The Rhaetians were the descendants of Etruscans who had settled in the Alps after being driven out of Italy by Gallic invaders in the 4th century BC. The Rhaetians derived their name from Retus or Rhetus, an Etruscan leader from ancient Tuscany who led his people into exile across the Rhaetian Alps. The area inhabited by the Rhaetians included what is today the Canton of Grigioni, part of the Canton of Ticino, Trentino, Tyrol, and other Alpine areas stretching from northeastern Italy to southern Germany.

The names of the tribes that inhabited what is now Grigioni included the Calucones in Val Calanca, the Rugusci in the Upper Engadine Valley, the Suanetes in Valle di Schams, who are also said to have lived in Val Soana in Piedmont, and the Vennoneti, who are also said to have lived in Valtellina, Lombardy. They all belonged to the Rhaetian family of tribes.

Grigioni was Romanized by the time of Augustus and most of its territory was part of the Roman province of Rhaetia. The Romans founded minor towns such as Magia (Maienfeld), Lapidaria (Andeer) and Tinetione (Tinizong), and major cities such as Curia (Chur), which is today the capital of Grigioni. Ever since the reign of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (161-180), the province of Rhaetia was defended and governed by the Legio III Italica, a legion of the Roman army composed of Italian legionaries. In 292 AD Rhaetia officially was made part of Italy by Emperor Diocletian, who divided the province into Raetia Prima and Raetia Secunda and incorporated them into the Diocese of Italy. Rhaetia became part of Italy during the same time period as the islands of Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily and Malta.

The area of what is now Grigioni remained part of Italy for the next several hundred years. Even after the fall of Rome, Grigioni remained part of Italy during the Gothic period (5th-6th century). In this period Grigioni formed part of Raetia Curiensis (the old Raetia Prima), which was nominally part of the Kingdom of Italy under the Ostrogoths.

In 536 Grigioni with the rest of Raetia Curiensis was conquered by the Franks and became separated from Italy. However — due to its isolation — Roman law, language, culture and identity prevailed in the region throughout the Middle Ages. In the 7th, 8th and 9th centuries the most powerful family of Raetia Curiensis was the Victorids (also known as the Zacconi), an ancient Roman aristocratic family who ruled the region and kept Raetia Curiensis in a state of de facto independence from the Frankish Empire. The Victorids were both secular and religious rulers, simultaneously occupying the bishopric of Chur and holding political power in Raetia Curiensis, using the title of Praeses.

In 806 Charlemagne ordered the separation of the bishopric from the political office and appointed a count to rule Raetia Curiensis. The Carolingian counts began to encroach and usurp authority in the region, leading to a struggle between the Carolingians and the Victorids. After the death of the last Victorid (Victor III, bishop of Chur) in c. 833, ancient Roman power in Raetia Curiensis was finally broken.

Ecclesiastically, Grigioni was still linked to Italy. Christianity had spread to Rhaetia from Italy as early as the 2nd century, and the bishopric of Chur was under the territorial jurisdiction of the archdiocese of Milan since at least the 5th century. It was not until 843 — about a decade after the death of the last Victorid — that the bishopric of Chur was detached from Milan and became a suffragan of the archdiocese of Mainz.

Politically, Raetia Curiensis remained a separate county within the Carolingian Empire and later East Francia, ruled by Alemannic counts. In 917 it was attached to the Duchy of Swabia by Burchard II, Duke of Swabia and Count of Rhaetia. In 962 Raetia Curiensis became part of the Holy Roman Empire and remained subject to the Dukes of Swabia.

Between the 10th and 11th centuries Raetia Curiensis was divided into three new counties and ceased to exist. Although formally belonging to the Duchy of Swabia, for the next few centuries political power in the region was split between various feudal lords, barons, counts, abbots and the Prince-Bishop of Chur. The Duchy of Swabia was dissolved in 1268 and local feudal lords fought for control over the territory. In the 14th century the citizens of the valley communities in Grigioni began to create alliances to defend themselves from local and foreign rulers.

By the 15th century Grigioni was divided into three independent leagues: the League of God's House, the League of the Ten Jurisdictions and the Grey League (from which Grigioni takes its name; grigio means gray in Italian). In 1471 these three leagues joined together to form the Free State of the Three Leagues, which was de facto independent from the Holy Roman Empire. The alliance was formed primarily to resist the power of the Habsburgs, the Prince-Bishopric of Chur and local feudal lords. In 1524 the Three Leagues formalized its independence. The Three Leagues became an associate or ally of the Swiss Confederacy, but remained independent of the Swiss Confederacy for the next three centuries.

The Three Leagues was conquered by Napoleon in 1798 and lost its independence; it was renamed the Canton of Raetia and annexed to the Helvetic Republic — a client state of Napoleon's French Empire. With the Act of Mediation in 1803, the canton was renamed Grigioni (Graubünden in German; Grisons in French) and became part of the restored Swiss Confederation — another client state of Napoleon's French Empire. Modern Switzerland was created in 1848 as a federal state, with Grigioni as one of its 25 cantons, after the end of the Sonderbund Civil War of 1847. Since that date Grigioni has remained part of Switzerland and has come to be regarded as "Swiss".


Grigioni Italiano

The southern valleys of Grigioni (Val Bregaglia, Val Calanca, Val Mesolcina and Val Poschiavo) form part of a sub-region known as Grigioni Italiano or Italian Grigioni. These southern parts of Grigioni are geographically separated from the rest of Grigioni by the Lepontine Alps, and also have a different political history than the rest of Grigioni. These parts of Grigioni remained linked to Italy for a significantly longer period of time before becoming part of the Three Leagues in the 15th and 16th centuries.

A summarized history of some of the most notable towns of Grigioni Italiano:

• Poschiavo was part of ancient Italy since the 1st century BC and was included in the 11th region of Italy, known as Transpadana. It was part of the Kingdom of Italy since the 5th century and belonged to the territory of Como. In the 10th century it was separated from Italy and became a subject of the Bishop of Chur. In the 11th and 12th centuries it was disputed over by Como, Chur and the lords of Mazia. In 1175 the rights of Como were recognized by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. By 1200 Poschiavo was a free commune. It returned to Como from 1306-1338. It was part of the Duchy of Milan from 1350-1406. In 1408 it became a subject of the Prince-Bishop of Chur. After 1494 it joined the League of God's House and became part of the Three Leagues.

• Brusio was part of ancient Italy since the 1st century BC and was included in the 11th region of Italy, known as Transpadana. It was part of the Kingdom of Italy since the 5th century and belonged to the territory of Tirano. By 1212 it was a free commune. It was part of the Duchy of Milan from 1350-1406. In 1408 it became a subject of the Prince-Bishop of Chur. After 1494 it joined the League of God's House and became part of the Three Leagues. 

• Campocologno was part of ancient Italy since the 1st century BC and was included in the 11th region of Italy, known as Transpadana. It was part of the Kingdom of Italy since the 5th century and belonged to the territory of Tirano. It was part of the Duchy of Milan from 1350-1521. In 1521 it was annexed to Brusio and became part of the Three Leagues. 

• Bregaglia was part of ancient Italy since the 1st century BC and belonged to the prefecture of Como (included in the 11th region of Italy, known as Transpadana). After 350 it was administratively transferred to Raetia Prima. It was part of the Kingdom of Italy since the 5th century. In the 9th century it was separated from Italy and became a district of Raetia Curiensis. In 960 it became a subject of the Bishop of Chur. By 1100 Bregaglia was a free commune. In 1367 it joined the League of God's House, which later formed the Three Leagues, but the Prince-Bishop of Chur retained strong political power. In 1546 Bregaglia made Italian the official language and aspired towards independence, but remained part of the Three Leagues.

• Calanca, Mesocco, Soazza and Roveredo were part of ancient Italy since the 1st century BC and were included in the 11th region of Italy, known as Transpadana. They were part of the Kingdom of Italy since the 5th century. By 1137 Calanca, Mesocco, Soazza and Roveredo were fiefdoms of the De Sacco family. In 1480 the De Sacco sold their rights to Gian Giacomo Trivulzio of Milan. Also in 1480 Mesocco and Soazza joined the Grey League with the permission of Trivulzio and became part of the Three Leagues. In 1496 Calanca likewise joined the Grey League and became part of the Three Leagues. The towns of Calanca, Mesocco, Soazza, Roveredo and the surrounding territory remained locally ruled by the Trivulzio family until 1549.

Germanization of Grigioni

Together with the Italian-speakers, the Romansh are the native peoples of Grigioni. The Romansh are an Italian people by origin, descended from the ancient Rhaetians (Etruscans) and Italian colonists who settled the Alps during the Roman period. But instead of standard Italian or Lombard dialect, which is spoken by the natives of Grigioni Italiano and the neighboring Canton of Ticino, they speak Romansh, a set of Latin dialects that developed after the fall of Rome. Romansh is part of the Rhaeto-Romance language subgroup and is closely related to the Ladin and Friulian dialects of Italy.

Romansh territory historically extended as far as Lake Constance and even included parts of the modern cantons of Schwyz, Glarus and St. Gallen, Liechtenstein and western Austria (Tyrol and Vorarlberg). Migrations of Germans during the High Middle Ages (11th-13th centuries) together with German political domination (Carolingian Empire and Holy Roman Empire) and German ecclesiastical control (Prince-Bishops and Imperial Abbeys) caused the Germanic-Latin boundary to move farther south at the expense of Latins. Today — and for the last few centuries — Romansh territory is limited only to Grigioni.

Until the 13th century the only languages spoken in Grigioni were Italian and Romansh. However, in the 13th and 14th centuries Walser and Alemannic Germans immigrated to Grigioni, especially to the areas of Scanavico (Schanfigg) and Prettigovia-Tavate (Prättigau-Davos), which were Germanized between the 14th and 16th centuries. As a result of these migrations, in the course of the next few centuries Romansh territory within Grigioni gradually shrank. This can be observed in the history of several towns:

• Tavate (Davos) was a Romansh town until the arrival of Walser Germans around the year 1280. 

• Maiavilla (Maienfeld) was also historically a Romansh town. In the 14th century Walser German immigrants arrived and founded several villages. Initially the German migrants were not granted the rights of citizenship, but by the 16th century the entire town was Germanized. 

• Tosana (Thusis), in the Tumleastga Valley, was a Romansh town, but became German in the 16th-17th centuries. Several other towns of the Tumleastga Valley became Germanized in the 19th century. 

• The city of Chur was a Romansh city until the 16th century, but was governed by German Prince-Bishops who held both ecclesiastical and temporal power since the 9th century. In 1464 the city was nearly completely destroyed by fire. After the fire, a large number of German immigrants from Vorarlberg and Liechtenstein moved to Chur. Formerly the most important Romansh city and capital of the Three Leagues, the Romansh became a minority in Chur and it became Germanized following the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century. 

• San Maurizio (St. Moritz), located in the Upper Engadine Valley, was entirely a Romansh village until recent times. In the 19th century German immigrants moved into the village. By 1880 only 50% of the population in San Maurizio still spoke Romansh as a first language. By 1941 only 20% spoke Romansh. The number declined to 8% in 1970, 6.23% in 1990 and 4.72% in 2000. Italian was also a prevalent language in San Maurizio, but has likewise declined. In 1900 Italian was spoken by 31% of the population. The number of Italian-speakers declined to 27.25 % in 1980, 21.32% in 1990 and 22.83% in 2000. German is now the official language.

The most severe Germanization of Grigioni took place in the 19th and 20th centuries, and is still continuing today. The official censuses of Grigioni reveal radical changes in population in the 209 years between 1803 and 2012. There is a sharp decrease in the Romance-speaking population and an overwhelming increase of German-speakers, due in part to German immigration, and in part to Italians and Romansh people abandoning their native languages and adopting German. This can be seen in the population statistics:

• In 1803 the overall population of Grigioni was about 64% Romance and about 36% German (36,700 Romansh-speakers; c. 10,276 Italian-speakers; c. 26,424 German-speakers). 

• In 1910 the overall population of Grigioni was 50% Romance and 50% German (37,147 Romansh-speakers; 20,963 Italian-speakers; 58,465 German-speakers). 

• In 2012 the overall population of Grigioni was 26% Romance and 74% German (27,955 Romansh-speakers; 23,506 Italian-speakers; 143,015 German-speakers).

Over the years, attempts have been made by the Swiss government to Germanize the Italian cantons and eliminate the Italian-Romansh character of Ticino and Gigioni. Historically, the Old Swiss Confederacy established in the 13th century was composed only of German-speaking cantons. But over the course of the next few centuries, the German cantons expanded and conquered Francophone, Italian and Romansh territories. The Germans formed much of the ruling political class and the majority of the federal government; they favoured the centralization of the state and German immigration to the Romance cantons, and in the the 20th century assured that German became the dominant language of the mass media, business and popular culture in Switzerland.

Unlike Ticino, which has retained its Italian heritage and identity, Grigioni has been subjected to a slow and steady process of Germanization over the last few centuries, and a rapid Germanization in the last two centuries. As proven by official censuses, the Canton of Grigioni, up until the early 19th century, was primarily Romance-speaking (Romansh and Italian). However, a wave of immigration of Germans to Grigioni, which caused German to become the language of industry, together with strict enforcement of the German language by the government and education system, caused the Romance population of Grigioni to drop from 64% in 1803, to 50% in 1910, and to only 26% in 2012 (less than 1% of the total Swiss population), while German-speakers today dominate Grigioni at 74%.

Despite the overwhelming majority of the population being Italian and Romansh at the time of its creation, the official language of government in the Three Leagues was German from about 1524 until 1794, although Italian and Romansh were used in law and courts in places where it was locally spoken. In 1794 Italian and Romansh were finally recognized as official languages by the Three Leagues. German intellectuals and politicians in the 18th and 19th centuries ridiculed Romansh as a "peasant language" and encouraged the Germanization of Grigioni. In the 19th century, after Grigioni became part of Switzerland for the first time, German public schools were often opened in Romansh towns, forcing Romansh children to receive a German education. In the second half of the 19th century the Romansh population began to form organizations to resist Germanization and defend local Romansh language and culture. But as recently as the 1930's children were publicly punished and ostracized for learning Romansh and attending privately-funded Romansh schools.

Romansh was not recognized as a national language by the Swiss government until 1938. However, the government made a distinction between "national" and "official" languages: declaring Romansh a "national language" was merely a symbolic act and did not carry any official status in law. As recently as the 1980's it was still considered insulting and degrading to speak Romansh in parliament. Not until 1996 was Romansh finally partially recognized as an official language with limitations. That is to say, its use was recognized "when interacting with Romansh-speaking people". It was not until 2004 that Romansh became an official language of legally equal status with the other official languages in the Canton of Grigioni.

Although Italian and Romansh are both official languages in Grigioni today, German is also an official language, making Grigioni the only trilingual canton in Switzerland. Even though the three languages now have equal status, German still takes precedence over the native Italian and Romansh languages due to social stigmas following decades of Germanization policies by the government, and due to German-speakers now being the majority of the population. The German language also continues to permeate business, politics and the mass media. The German language also continues to permeate business, politics and the mass media. As demonstrated by the surnames, much of the population of Grigioni is still of ethnic Romansh origin, but now speaks Germans instead of Romansh.

Due to recent immigration, several foreign languages are now more prevalent in Switzerland than the Romansh language: Serbo-Croatian, Albanian, Portuguese, Spanish, English and even Turkish are all more widely-spoken in Switzerland today than Romansh.


Germanization of Grigioni Italiano

Grigioni Italiano is comprised of four valleys (Val Bregaglia, Val Calanca, Val Mesolcina, Val Poschiavo) and the town of Bivio in Val Sursette. The population is over 85% Italian. The inhabitants traditionally speak a local Italian dialect of Lombard instead of Romansh. Grigioni Italiano has not suffered Germanization as strongly as the rest of Grigioni. However, attempts have been made for a long time to Germanize the region.

In 1869-1870 the towns of Brusio and Poschiavo — the last-remaining parts of Grigioni which were still part of the Catholic Church in Italy — were detached from the Italian diocese of Como and placed under the Swiss-German diocese of Chur, thereby officially ending the millennial ecclesiastical link between Grigioni and Italy, and granting to Chur the jurisdiction over the entire region which they had ambitiously sought for centuries.

Pro Grigioni Italiano, an Italian cultural association, was founded by Arnoldo Marcelliano Zendralli in 1918 to defend the Italianity of Grigioni and oppose the Germanization of the Canton.

Bivio was historically an Italian city and remained Italian until very recently. In 1860, Italian was spoken by 80% of the population. In 1980, 42% of Bivio still spoke Italian. By 2000 the Italian-speaking population decreased to 29.41% and the German-speaking population rose from 36.97% in 1980 to 55% in 2000. In 2005 the German-speaking community — now a majority for the first time — changed the official language of Bivio from Italian to German, replacing the ancient language of the town.

Grigioni Italiano is in danger of losing its Italian heritage. Although Italians still make up about 85% of the population, Italians were formerly 100% of the population, and the current Italian population amounts to less than 15,000 people. The ancient Italian populace is gradually disappearing, and a combination of cultural Germanization and foreign immigration is threatening them with eventual extinction or absorption into the larger German and Germanized population.

A similar fate which has befallen Grigioni has also happened to the Canton of Valais, which was once entirely Romance in population. The very name 'Valais' (Wallis in German) shares the same origin as the terms 'Walloon', 'Welsh' and 'Vlach', each deriving from the proto-Germanic term walhaz, a name which the Germanic invaders applied to the local Roman populations. Although formerly inhabited only by Latin-speaking people, now the eastern half of Valais is almost entirely German. Both Grigioni Italiano and the larger Canton of Grigioni are facing the same eventual fate as Valais.


Notable Italians

Like the neighboring Ticino, many Italian artists, architects and craftsmen came from Grigioni. Many of them worked in Germany and Austria. Below are some of the most important Italians from Grigioni:

• Carlo Angelini - Architect
• Giacomo Angelini - Architect
• Giovanni Albertalli (Giovanni Albertallo) - Architect
• Giovanni Battista Artari - Sculptor
• Giovanni Bonalino - Architect
• Alberto Camesina - Stuccoist
• Giovanni Battista Camessina - Architect
• Tommaso Comacio - Architect
• Guido Fanconi - Pediatrician and one of the founders of modern pediatrics
• Gabriele de Gabrieli - Architect
• Francesco de Gabrieli - Architect and stuccoist
• Paganino Gaudenzi - Theologian
• Giovanni Rigalia the Elder - Architect
• Giovanni Rigalia the Younger (Giovanni Pietro Rigaglia) - Architect
• Antonio Riva - Architect
• Domenico Maria Sala - Architect
• Lorenzo Sciascia - Architect
• Giovanni Serro - Architect
• Elda Simonett-Giovanoli - Journalist
• Giovanni Simonetti - Architect and stuccoist
• Giovanni Antonio Viscardi - Architect
• Giorgio Genatio (Jenatsch) - Politician and military commander

(Giorgio Genatio was of Romansh origin. His native language was a Romansh dialect known as Putér. He learned multiple languages, but wrote primarily in Italian and consistently called himself Giorgio in his letters. His original surname was Genatio or Jenatz — he used both the Italian and Romansh forms in his signatures. His name has been popularly Germanized to "Jürg Jenatsch" due to the influence of a 19th century novel by Conrad Ferdinand Meyer, who changed his name from Giorgio to Jürg in order to appeal to German readers.)

There have also been several prominent families from Grigioni:

• Barbieri Family - The Barbieri were a family of architects and builders from Roveredo. In the 17th and 18th centuries the family produced five architects: Alberto Barbieri (c. 1580-1645); Martino Barbieri (1583-1633); Giulio Barbieri (c. 1610-1681); Domenico Barbieri (c. 1615-1686); and Giovanni Domenico Barbieri (1704-1764).

• Giacometti Family - The Giacometti were a family of artists and architects in the 19th and 20th centuries. The most notable members of the family were: Giovanni Giacometti (1868-1933), a painter; Augusto Giacometti (1877-1947), a painter; Zaccaria Giacometti (1893-1970), a professor of constitutional law; Alberto Giacometti (1901-1966), a sculptor, painter, draughtsman and printmaker; Diego Giacometti (1902-1985), a sculptor and designer; Bruno Giacometti (1907-2012), an architect.

• Planta Family - The Planta family is one of the most ancient families of Grigioni. The family is of Roman origin and likely belonged to the senatorial class. Their oldest recorded ancestor is Julius Planta, a friend and emissary of Emperor Claudius, whose name is recorded on the 1st century Tabula clesiana, discovered near Cles in Trentino, Italy. Another ancient member of the family, Pompeius Planta, is mentioned on an inscription discovered in Balbura, Anatolia. Pompeius Planta was the Roman Procurator of Asia Minor under Emperor Vespasian. A second Pompeius Planta (perhaps the same as the first) was the Roman governor of Egypt from 98-100 AD and was a friend of Emperor Trajan. A third Pompeius Planta, mentioned by Probus, was a Roman historian in the 2nd century. Lucius Avilius Planta, another ancient member of the family, is commemorated on an inscription in Rome from the year 90 AD. The oldest Planta recorded in Grigioni's history is Orsicinus or Ursicinus, bishop of Chur in the 5th century. Another bishop of Chur, also named Ursicinus, is venerated as a saint. He was the founding abbot of Desertina (Disentis) in the 8th century and also belonged to the Planta family. An Angelina Planta was abbess of the Abbey of Monastero (Müstair) in 1110. The modern history of the Planta family began in 1139, when they obtained feudal rights in the Upper Engadine. The Planta family was later one of the co-founders of the Three Leagues. A branch of the family lived in Britain in the 18th and 19th centuries. The Planta family still exists today in Switzerland.

• Salis Family - The Salis or De Salis family first appeared in Grigioni at the end of the 13th century. The founder of the family was Rodulfus de Salice de Solio (died in 1300). He was a descendant of the Salici, an Italian patrician family from Como. The Salis family became ministeriales of the Prince-Bishops of Chur and occupied many political offices, becoming mayors and governors in Bregaglia and Valtellina. They were also squires and knights, and held many castles in Grigioni. A branch of the family later moved to Britain and adopted the title Count de Salis-Soglio. Another branch of the family adopted the title Count de Salis-Seewis. Descendants of the Salis family still exist today. The most prominent member of the family was Colonel Giovanni Ulrico di Salis-Soglio (Johann-Ulrich von Salis-Soglio), commander of the Sonderbund in the Swiss Civil War of 1847.

• Victorid Family - The Victorid or Zacconi family were bishops of Chur and independent rulers of Raetia Curiensis between the 7th and 9th centuries. The founder of the family was Zacco, a 6th century military commander whose descendants married into the Victorids, a local family of Roman origin. The first member of the family to hold religious office was Victor I, bishop of Chur in c. 614. His brother Jactatus was ruler of Raetia Curiensis. Tello was the first Victorid to simultaneously hold the office of bishop of Chur and ruler of Raetia Curiensis (759-765). The last Victorid ruler was Victor III, bishop of Chur. He died in c. 833.

• Zuccalli Family - The Zuccalli were a family of architects and builders from Roveredo. The most notable member was Enrico Zuccalli (1642-1724), who was the official architect of the Bavarian court and one of the major architects who introduced Italian Baroque architecture to Germany. Other members were Gaspare Zuccalli (1629-1678), Domenico Cristoforo Zuccalli (1650-1702) and Giovanni Gaspare Zuccalli (1661-1717).

Notable Italians of Grigioni

Grigioni, also known as Graubunden or Grisons, is a canton of Switzerland and a historical Italian region currently divided between Italian-speaking, Romansh-speaking and German-speaking populations. The cantons of Ticino and Grigioni together form Italian Switzerland.

Like the neighboring Ticino, many Italian artists, architects and craftsmen came from Grigioni. Many of them worked in Germany and Austria. Below are some of the most important Italians from Grigioni:

• Carlo Angelini - Architect
• Giacomo Angelini - Architect
• Giovanni Albertalli (Giovanni Albertallo) - Architect
• Giovanni Battista Artari - Sculptor
• Giovanni Bonalino - Architect
• Alberto Camesina - Stuccoist
• Giovanni Battista Camessina - Architect
• Tommaso Comacio - Architect
• Guido Fanconi - Pediatrician and one of the founders of modern pediatrics
• Gabriele de Gabrieli - Architect
• Francesco de Gabrieli - Architect and stuccoist
• Paganino Gaudenzi - Theologian
• Giovanni Rigalia the Elder - Architect
• Giovanni Rigalia the Younger (Giovanni Pietro Rigaglia) - Architect
• Antonio Riva - Architect
• Domenico Maria Sala - Architect
• Lorenzo Sciascia - Architect
• Giovanni Serro - Architect
• Elda Simonett-Giovanoli - Journalist
• Giovanni Simonetti - Architect and stuccoist
• Giovanni Antonio Viscardi - Architect
• Giorgio Genatio (Jenatsch) - Politician and military commander

(Giorgio Genatio was of Romansh origin. His native language was a Romansh dialect known as Putér. He learned multiple languages, but wrote primarily in Italian and consistently called himself Giorgio in his letters. His original surname was Genatio or Jenatz. His name has been popularly Germanized to "Jürg Jenatsch" due to the influence of a 19th century novel by Conrad Ferdinand Meyer, who changed his name from Giorgio to Jürg in order to appeal to German readers.)

There have also been several prominent families from Grigioni:

• Barbieri Family - The Barbieri were a family of architects and builders from Roveredo. In the 17th and 18th centuries the family produced five architects: Alberto Barbieri (c. 1580-1645); Martino Barbieri (1583-1633); Giulio Barbieri (c. 1610-1681); Domenico Barbieri (c. 1615-1686); and Giovanni Domenico Barbieri (1704-1764).

• Giacometti Family - The Giacometti were a family of artists and architects in the 19th and 20th centuries. The most notable members of the family were: Giovanni Giacometti (1868-1933), a painter; Augusto Giacometti (1877-1947), a painter; Zaccaria Giacometti (1893-1970), a professor of constitutional law; Alberto Giacometti (1901-1966), a sculptor, painter, draughtsman and printmaker; Diego Giacometti (1902-1985), a sculptor and designer; Bruno Giacometti (1907-2012), an architect.

• Planta Family - The Planta family is one of the most ancient families of Grigioni. The family is of Roman origin and likely belonged to the senatorial class. Their oldest recorded ancestor is Julius Planta, a friend and emissary of Emperor Claudius, whose name is recorded on the 1st century Tabula clesiana, discovered near Cles in Trentino, Italy. Another ancient member of the family, Pompeius Planta, is mentioned on an inscription discovered in Balbura, Anatolia. Pompeius Planta was the Roman Procurator of Asia Minor under Emperor Vespasian. A second Pompeius Planta (perhaps the same as the first) was the Roman governor of Egypt from 98-100 AD and was a friend of Emperor Trajan. A third Pompeius Planta, mentioned by Probus, was a Roman historian in the 2nd century. Lucius Avilius Planta, another ancient member of the family, is commemorated on an inscription in Rome from the year 90 AD. The oldest Planta recorded in Grigioni's history is Orsicinus or Ursicinus, bishop of Chur in the 5th century. Another bishop of Chur, also named Ursicinus, is venerated as a saint. He was the founding abbot of Desertina (Disentis) in the 8th century and also belonged to the Planta family. An Angelina Planta was abbess of the Abbey of Monastero (Müstair) in 1110. The modern history of the Planta family began in 1139, when they obtained feudal rights in the Upper Engadine. The Planta family was later one of the co-founders of the Three Leagues. A branch of the family lived in Britain in the 18th and 19th centuries. The Planta family still exists today in Switzerland.

• Salis Family - The Salis or De Salis family first appeared in Grigioni at the end of the 13th century. The founder of the family was Rodulfus de Salice de Solio (died in 1300). He was a descendant of the Salici, an Italian patrician family from Como. The Salis family became ministeriales of the Prince-Bishops of Chur and occupied many political offices, becoming mayors and governors in Bregaglia and Valtellina. They were also squires and knights, and held many castles in Grigioni. A branch of the family later moved to Britain and adopted the title Count de Salis-Soglio. Another branch of the family adopted the title Count de Salis-Seewis. Descendants of the Salis family still exist today. The most prominent member of the family was Colonel Giovanni Ulrico di Salis-Soglio (Johann-Ulrich von Salis-Soglio), commander of the Sonderbund in the Swiss Civil War of 1847.

• Victorid Family - The Victorid or Zacconi family were bishops of Chur and independent rulers of Raetia Curiensis between the 7th and 9th centuries. The founder of the family was Zacco, a 6th century military commander whose descendants married into the Victorids, a local family of Roman origin. The first member of the family to hold religious office was Victor I, bishop of Chur in c. 614. His brother Jactatus was ruler of Raetia Curiensis. Tello was the first Victorid to simultaneously hold the office of bishop of Chur and ruler of Raetia Curiensis (759-765). The last Victorid ruler was Victor III, bishop of Chur. He died in c. 833.

• Zuccalli Family - The Zuccalli were a family of architects and builders from Roveredo. The most notable member was Enrico Zuccalli (1642-1724), who was the official architect of the Bavarian court and one of the major architects who introduced Italian Baroque architecture to Germany. Other members were Gaspare Zuccalli (1629-1678), Domenico Cristoforo Zuccalli (1650-1702) and Giovanni Gaspare Zuccalli (1661-1717).

Notable Italians of Ticino

Ticino is a canton of Switzerland primarily inhabited by an Italian population, and comprises most of the Italian-speaking area of Switzerland. Of all the ethnically Italian regions located outside of Italy, Ticino is unique because it is the only Italian region situated within a majority non-Italian country whose language, culture and identity is still Italian. This is contrast to regions such as Istria or Grigioni, whose Italian populations have been greatly diminished over the last couple centuries.

Many notable Italians came from Ticino, especially architects. Ticino has a very strong architectural tradition and has produced more architects per capita than any other region in the world, and in a record span of time (most of them lived between the 15th and 19th centuries), and while living in oppressive conditions as subjects of the Swiss. Ticino's architects includes men who revolutionized the history of architecture, and men who worked all over Europe and achieved international fame.

Below are some of the most important Italians from Ticino:

• Francesco Borromini - Architect; one of the founders of baroque architecture
• Luigi Canonica - Architect and urban planner; official architect of the Cisalpine Republic 
• Carlo Maderno - Architect; one of the founders of baroque architecture; designed the facade of St. Peter's Basilica
• Domenico Gilardi - Architect; helped rebuild Moscow after its destruction by Napoleon
• Giovanni Battista di Quadro - Architect; helped build and rebuild Poznan in Poland
• Giovanni Battista Trevano - Architect; introduced the baroque style to Poland
• Francesco Boffo - Architect; helped build Odessa in Ukraine
• Ippolit Monighetti - Architect; worked in Russia
• Cosimo Morelli - Architect; worked in the Papal States
• Pietro Nobile - Architect; leading architect of the Habsburg court
• Francesco Righetti - Architect; worked in Argentina
• Domenico Rossi - Architect; worked in Venice
• Luigi Rusca - Architect; worked in Russia and Ukraine
• Gaetano Matteo Pisoni - Architect; worked in Belgium and Switzerland
• Giovanni Antonio Viscardi - Architect; worked in Bavaria
• Pietro Morettini - Architect and military engineer; worked in Germany, Italy, Belgium and the Netherlands
• Bernardacci Brothers - Architects; worked in Russia
• Fossati Brothers - Architects; renovated Hagia Sophia
• Lafranchini Brothers - Stuccoists; worked on the palladian houses of Ireland
• Giuseppe Artari - Stuccoist; worked in Germany and Great Britain
• Giovanni Pietro Magni - Stuccoist; worked on the Würzburg Cathedral
• Antonio Raggi - Sculptor and stuccoist
• Giovanni Antonio Pilacorte - Sculptor
• Grazioso Rusca - Sculptor
• Camillo Rusconi - Sculptor
• Vincenzo Vela - Sculptor
• Giovanni Battista Bagutti - Painter
• Carlo Bossoli - Painter
• Antonio Ciseri - Painter
• Francesco Antonio Giorgioli - Painter
• Giuseppe Antonio Orelli - Painter
• Vincenzo Angelo Orelli - Painter
• Giuseppe Antonio Petrini - Painter
• Francesco Innocenzo Torriani - Painter
• Giuseppe Antonio Maria Torricelli - Painter
• Giovan Giacomo Paleari Fratino - Military engineer
• Domenico Reina - Tenor
• Gian Battista Mantegazzi - Composer
• Maestro Martino da Como - Gastronomist and chef; the world's first celebrity chef
• Carlo Gatti - Entrepreneur; the first to make ice cream available to the general public
• Carlo Ponti - Photographer and optician; inventor of the alethoscope and megalethoscope
• Nicolò Rusca - Priest and martyr; tortured and murdered by Protestants
• Romano Amerio - Theologian and critic against the Second Vatican Council
• Teresina Bontempi - Journalist and irredentist
• Francesco Chiesa - Poet and teacher; co-founded the Ticinese branch of the Dante Alighieri Society
• Leonardo Conti - Doctor, SS-Obergruppenfuhrer and Reich Health Leader of National Socialist Germany

There have also been several architectural and artisan families from Ticino:

• Adamini Family - Family of architects who worked in St. Petersburg, Russia. The most prominent was Domenico Adamini (1792-1860). Other members were Leone (1727/1728-1764), Agostino (1752-1792), Tommaso (1763/1764-1828), Leone (1789-1854), Antonio (1792-1846) and Tommaso Adamini (1823-1850), all of whom worked in Russia; some of them were nominated master builders of the Imperial Court. Giuseppe Antonio Adamini (1756) was an architect for the Royal Court in Lisbon, Portugal and in India. Later members of the family were Bernardo (1834-1900), Clemente (1832-1907), Tommaso (1829-1887) and Emilio Adamini (1854-1914), all of whom were hydraulic and railway engineers who specialized in the construction of railroads.

• Albertolli Family - Family of architects, stuccoists and painters from Bedano who worked in Italy in the 18th and 19th centuries. Members of the family included Francesco Saverio Albertolli (1701-1761), architect; Michele Albertolli (1732-1761), architect; Grato Albertolli (1740-1812), stuccoist; Giocondo Albertolli (1743-1839), architect, painter, sculptor, stuccoist and knight of the Iron Crown; Gian Giacomo Albertolli (1761-1805), professor of civil architecture; Raffaele Albertolli (1770-1812), painter, engraver and stuccoist; Ferdinando Albertolli (1780-1844), architect and professor of design; and Fedele Albertolli (1789-1832), painter. They were possibly related to the 16th century architect Giovanni Albertalli of Grigioni.

• Agustoni Family - Family of architects who worked in Genoa, Germany, Czechia and the Papal States. The most important was Lazaro Agustoni (1570-1642), who remodeled Würzburg Cathedral and built many churches in Germany and Prague with his brother Francesco. His nephew Giacomo Agustoni (1668-1735) built baroque structures in Bohemia. His other nephew Domenico Agustoni (1606-1681) was a foreman in Prague. Battista Agustoni (1565-1616) and Agostino Agustoni (1570-1616) were master builders in Genoa. Antonio Agustoni (1669-1729) worked as a stuccoist in Copenhagen. Pietro Agustoni (1741-1815) worked in the Papal States. One branch of the family became known as the Cantone or Cantoni family, represented by the architects Antonio Cantone, Bernardino Cantone (1505-1576/1580) and Pietro or Pier Francesco Cantone (1585-1657). Other members included Francesco Maria Cantoni (1685-1712), Pietro Cantoni (1710-1785), Gaetano Cantoni (1745-1827) and Simone Cantoni (1739-1818), who was one of the major neoclassical architects in Italy.

• Aostalli Family - Family of architects who worked in Prague. The most important members of the family were Giovanni Maria Aostalli (1500-1567), Giovanni Battista Aostalli (1510-1575) and Ulrico Aostalli de Sala (1525-1597).

• Bagnato Family - Family of master builders who worked in Switzerland and Germany. The most important members of the family were Paolo Bagnato (1660-1704), Giovanni Gaspare Bagnato (1696-1757) and Francesco Antonio Bagnato (1731-1810).

• Brenni Family - Family of stuccoists and architects from Salorino who helped introduce Late Baroque style to Germany. There were over a dozen members of the family who worked around Europe. The most famous were Carlo Enrico Brenno (1688-1745), who worked in Germany and Denmark, and Vincenzo Brenna (1747-1820), who was the leading court architect of Tsarist Russia.

• Bussi Family - Family of painters and stuccoists from Bissone who worked in Austria, Bavaria and Czechia. The most notable members were Carlo Antonio Bussi (1658-1690), a painter who worked in Passau Cathedral and decorated many churches in Austria, and Santino Bussi (1664-1736), a stuccoist who worked in many castles in Austria and Czechia.

• Carabelli Family - Family of artisans from Castel San Pietro who worked in Portugal, Italy and Ticino. Members of the family included Giovanni Albino Carabelli (1690-1766), sculptor and engraver of the Royal Court of Portugal; Giuseppe Carabelli (1722-1803), woodcarver; Francesco Carabelli (1737-1798), sculptor who worked in Milan; Donato Carabelli (1760-1839), sculptor and stuccoist who worked in the Milan Cathedral; Casimiro Carabelli (1774-1840), stuccoist.

• Carlone Family - The Carlone or Carloni was a prolific artisan family composed of architects, master builders, stuccoists and painters who worked in Central Europe and Italy in the Baroque and Rococo periods. The family was divided into two main branches: the Carlone di Scaria in Lombardy and the Carlone di Rovio in modern Ticino. Most of them were itinerant artists. Members of the Ticino branch included: Antonio Carlone (1470-1520), architect and sculptor; Michele Carlone (1468-1519), architect and sculptor; Giovanni Carloni (1510-1576), sculptor; Taddeo Carlone (1543-1615), architect and sculptor; Giovanni Bernado Carlone (1584-1631), painter; Giovanni Battista Carlone (1603-1684), painter; Giovanni Andrea Carlone (1639-1697), painter; Giovanni Carlone (1636-1717), painter; Giovanni Battista Carlone (1580/90-1645), architect; Giuseppe Maria Carlone (1646-1695), architect and sculptor.

• Casella Family - Family of sculptors and stuccoists from Carona who worked in Italy. The most notable member was Daniele Casella (1557-1646), one of the most important sculptors of Genoa in the 16th and 17th centuries. Other members included Donato Casella (c. 1505-1560), Alvise Casella (1525-1590), Francesco Casella (1540-1602), Giovanni Battista Casella de Annibale (1623-1678), Giovanni Battista Casella de Monora (c. 1620-1679) and many others.

• Castello Family - The Castello or Castelli was a family of stuccoists and architects from Melide who worked in Germany and Austria. The most notable member was Matteo Castelli (1555-1632), official architect of the Royal Court of Poland who co-designed the Royal Castle in Warsaw..

• Colomba Family - Family of architects, painters and stuccoists from Arogno who worked in Austria, Germany, Italy, Poland, Hungary, Ticino and Prague. Members of the family included Andrea Colomba (1567-1627), stuccoist; Giovanni Antonio Colomba (1585-1650), stuccoist; Cristoforo Colomba (1625-1680), architect and stuccoist; Giovanni Battista Colomba (1638-1693), architect, painter and stuccoist; Luca Antonio Colomba (1674-1737), painter; Giovanni Battista Innocenzo Colomba (1717-1793), architect, painter and stage designer.

• Contin Family - Family of architects and sculptors who worked in Venice in the 16th and 17th centuries. The family produced four artisans who each worked in architecture and sculpture: Bernardino Contin (1530-1596) and his three sons Antonio Contin (1566-1600), Tommaso Contin (1570-1634) and Francesco Contin (1585-1654). Bernardino Contin was the son of Venetian architect Antonio da Ponte (1512-1597). Antonio Contin assisted his grandfather in the construction of the Rialto Bridge in Venice.

• Fontana Family - One of the most prolific and important architectural families from Ticino. The most notable members of the family were Domenico Fontana (1543-1607), who completed the dome of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, and his nephew Carlo Fontana (1638-1714), who introduced classicism to Baroque architecture. Other members included Giovanni Fontana (1540-1614), architect, engineer and Dominican friar; Giulio Cesare Fontana (1580-1627), architect and engineer; Baldassarre Fontana (1661-1733), architect and stuccoist who worked in Bavaria, Moravia and Poland; Francesco Fontana (1668-1708), architect and engineer; Giovanni Maria Fontana (1670-1712), architect who worked in Russia; Giuseppe Fontana (1676-1739), architect who worked in Poland; Jacopo Fontana (1710-1773), architect of the Royal Court of Poland; Giovanni Antonio Fontana (1738-1803), architect; Luigi Fontana (1824-1894), architect who worked in Russia. A branch of the family in Valsolda included Paolo Fontana (1696-1765), architect who worked in Poland and helped introduce Baroque architecture to Ukraine.

• Gagini Family - Family of architects and sculptors who worked in Italy. The family produced a dozen sculptors between the 15th and 18th centuries. The most important were Domenico Gagini (1420-1492) and Antonello Gagini (1478-1536), who worked on the Palermo Cathedral. Other notable members were Giacomo Gagini (1517-1598), Fazio Gagini (1520-1567) and Vincenzo Gagini (1527-1595).

• Lombardo Family - Family of architects and sculptors from Carona who worked primarily in Venice. They were a branch of the Solari or Solaro Family who changed their name to Lombardo after moving to Venice. The most notable members were Pietro Lombardo (1435-1515), Tullio Lombardo (1455-1532), Antonio Lombardo (1458-1516) and Sante Lombardo (1504-1560). They designed many Venetian tombs and churches.

• Lucchese Family - Family of architects, stuccoists, painters and geometers. The family was ivided into two branches: one from Pambio and one from Melide. The most notable member of the Melide branch was Filiberto Lucchese (1606-1666), one of the main architects of the Viennese court in the 17th century. He also worked in Bohemia and Moravia. He was in charge of the fortifications of Vienna and the eastern border of the Habsburg Empire. His grandfather Alberto Lucchese (c. 1545-1600) was court architect in Innsbruck.

• Lucchini Family - Family of architects from Collina d'Oro. Members of the family included Luca Lucchini (1720-1788), architect who worked in the Bergamo area; Giovanni Francesco Lucchini (1755-1826), architect who worked in Bergamo; Giuseppe Lucchini (1756-1829), architect who worked in Russia; and Pasquale Lucchini (1798-1892), architect and engineer who designed tunnels and roads in Ticino and was one of the founders of the Bank of Italian Switzerland.

• Maggi Family - Family of architects from Bruzella who worked in Czechia and Italy. The most notable members of the family were Giacomo Antonio Maggi (1636-1706), Pietro Maggi (1642-1709) and Pietro Maggi (1756-1816).

• Maraini Family - Family of artists, architects, intellectuals and entrepreneurs in Italy and Japan in the 19th and 20th centuries. The most notable members of the family were: Adelaide Pandiani Maraini (1835-1917), sculptress; Clemente Maraini (1838-1905), engineer and building contractor; Emilio Maraini (1853-1916), deputy of the Kingdom of Italy and founder of the Italian sugar industry; Enrico Maraini (1855-1938), banker and building contractor; Otto Maraini (1863-1944), architect; Carolina Maraini Sommaruga (1869-1959), countess; Antonio Maraini (1886-1963), artist and deputy of the Kingdom of Italy; Fosco Maraini (1912-2004), anthropologist, ethnologist, mountaineer, photographer and writer. Descendants of the family still exist today.

• Pellegrini Family - A prolific family from Coglio which attained prominence in Savoy, Italy, France and Argentina. The founder of the family was Bernardo Pellegrini (born 1758). His sons included Jean Claude Pellegrini (1787-1854), Chief Engineer of the Corps of Bridges and Roads in France; Barthélemy Charles Gaétan Pellegrini (1790-1832), military engineer in Metz; Jean Bernard Pellegrini (1794-1865), architect; and Charles Henri Pellegrini (1800-1875), engineer, lithographer, painter and architect. His grandsons included the architect Charles-Bernard Pellegrini (1819-1864) and the President of Argentina Carlos Pellegrini (1846-1906).

• Pozzi Family - Family of architects, painters and stuccoists from Bruzella who worked in Germany, Switzerland and Italy. Members of the family included Francesco Pozzi (1704-1789), architect, painter and stuccoist; Giuseppe Antonio Pozzi (1732-1811), stuccoist; Carlo Luca Pozzi (1734-1812), sculptor and stuccoist; Domenico Pozzi (1745-1796), painter and historian; Giovanni Domenico Francesco Pozzi (1755-1796), painter; Carlo Ignazio Pozzi (1766-1842), architect, painter and stage designer; and Massimiliano Giuseppe Pozzi (1770-1842), sculptor.

• Solari Family - The Solaro or Solari was a family of architects and sculptors from Carona who worked primarily Italy, but also in Russia and France. Members of the family included Marco Solari (1355-1405), master builder who worked on the Milan Cathedral and the Certosa di Pavia; Giovanni Solari (1400-1482), architect and engineer who worked on the the Milan Cathedral and the Certosa di Pavia; Guiniforte Solari (1429-1481), architect, engineer and sculptor; Francesco Solari (1430-1475), architect and sculptor; Pietro Antonio Solari (1445-1493), architect and sculptor who worked in Moscow; Andrea Solari (1465-1524), painter who worked in France and Italy; and Cristoforo Solari (1468-1524), architect and sculptor. A branch of the Solari Family moved to Venice and changed their name to Lombardo.

• Tencalla Family - Family of artists and architects from Bissone who worked in Auastria, Germany, Poland, Czechia and Italy. Members of the family included Giovanni Giacomo Tencalla (1591-1653), architect and sculptor of the royal courts of Vienna and Poland; Costante Tencalla (1593-1646), architect of the Royal Court of Poland; Carpoforo Tencalla (1623-1685), painter who helped introduce Early Baroque style in Central Europe; Giovanni Pietro Tencalla (1629-1702), architect and sculptor of the Royal Court of Vienna; Giacomo Tencalla (1644-1689), painter who worked in Czechia; and Carpoforo Mazzetti Tencalla (1685-1743), painter, sculptor and stuccoist in Venice.

• Trefogli Family - Family of painters, artisans, architects and engineers from Torricella who worked in Piedmont and Peru in the 19th and 20th centuries. The most notable member of the family was Marco Antonio Trefogli (1782-1854), painter and stuccoist. He had 11 children, including Michele Trefogli (1838-1928), architect, engineer and State Architect of Peru; Bernardo Trefogli, painter; Paolo Trefogli, architect and engineer; and Camillo Trefogli, merchant.

• Trezzini Family - Family of architects from Astano who worked in Russia in the 18th century. The most important member of the family was Domenico Trezzini (1670-1734), who introduced the baroque style to Russia. Other members included Pietro Antonio Trezzini (1692-1760), Carlo Giuseppe Trezzini (1697-1768), Pietro Trezzini (1710-1734), Matteo Trezzini (1710-1750) and Giuseppe Trezzini (1732-1785). The last notable member was Angelo Trezzini (1827-1904), painter, lithographer and illustrator in Milan.

History of Ticino

Ticino is a canton of Switzerland primarily inhabited by an Italian population, and comprises most of the Italian-speaking area of Switzerland. Of all the ethnically Italian regions located outside of Italy, Ticino is unique because it is the only Italian region situated within a majority non-Italian country whose language, culture and identity is still Italian. This is in contrast to regions such as Istria or Grigioni, whose Italian populations have been greatly diminished over the last couple centuries.

In ancient times the area of southern and eastern Switzerland was inhabited by a group of tribes known as the Rhaetians. The Rhaetians were the descendants of Etruscans who had settled in the Alps after being driven out of Italy by Gallic invaders in the 4th century BC. The Rhaetians derived their name from Retus or Rhetus, an Etruscan leader from ancient Tuscany who led his people into exile across the Rhaetian Alps. The area inhabited by the Rhaetians included what is today the Canton of Grigioni (also known as Graubunden or Grisons), Trentino, Tyrol and other Alpine areas stretching from northeastern Italy to southern Germany.

What is today the Canton of Ticino was in part inhabited by a Rhaetian tribe called the Brenni or Breuni, who lived near Bellinzona and in Valle di Blenio. They were possibly related to the tribe that inhabited the Brenner region. However, Ticino was primarily inhabited by a tribe known as the Lepontii or Lepontians. Although it is popular today to regard them as Celts — a vestige of the 19th century "Celtomania" movement — the Lepontii were historically regarded as either a Rhaetian tribe or a Ligurian tribe. Linguistic and archaeological evidence ties them to the Ligurians of northwestern Italy, although their alphabet certainly derived from Etruscan, which suggests a connection to the Rhaetians.

In any case, despite being partly inhabited by Rhaetians, the area of Ticino was never part of the Rhaetian province. Ticino — which was already Romanized by the time of Augustus — was instead part of ancient Italy, included in the 11th region of Italy known as Transpadana. The Romans established settlements in what is now Mendrisio, Locarno, Lugano, Riva San Vitale, Bioggio and Minusio, and founded the city of Bellinzona, which is today the capital of Ticino. Ticino remained part of Italy for the next several hundred years; even after the fall of Rome, Ticino remained part of Italy during the Gothic period (5th-6th century), the period of the Justinian reconquest (6th century), the Longobard period (6th-8th century) and the Carolingian period (8th-9th century). Ticino was part of Italy during the period of the independent Kingdom of Italy (9th-10th century) and still remained part of the Kingdom of Italy after Italy's incorporation into the Holy Roman Empire (962). In the 12th and 13th centuries Ticino was fought over by the communes of Como and Milan, and in the 14th century Ticino became part of the Duchy of Milan.

Also in the 14th century a new confederation of allied states emerged known as the Swiss Confederacy, comprised of three small German-speaking cantons in the Alps known as Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden. Beginning in the 15th century the canton of Uri began attempting to conquer the lands of the Duchy of Milan, namely those Milanese lands which now form Ticino. Over the course of the next century, Uri and the other Swiss cantons conquered Ticino in a series of military campaigns, taking its three most important cities: Bellinzona, Lugano and Locarno. These military campaigns were a result of the aggressive expansionist policy of the Swiss Confederation. The Swiss cantons partook in the Italian Wars and gained not only Ticino, but also some other Italian territories which today are part of Lombardy. This may seem ironic given Switzerland's present-day reputation as a land of pacifism, diplomacy and permanent neutrality, but in fact Switzerland was born of warfare and bloodshed, and its territory grew through aggressive wars of expansion and imperial conquest against its neighbours. Indeed the Swiss cantons were in an almost constant state of war from 1315 until 1847, including numerous civil wars amongst themselves.

The Swiss conquest of Ticino was completed by 1515. Apart from Vaud, Ticino was the last territory to be conquered by the Swiss Confederacy. Ecclesiastically, however, these conquests were not recognized: the area continued to be viewed by the Church as part of the Dioceses of Como and Milan (and it remained so all the way up until 1859). Prior to the modern era, Ticino did not exist as an organized canton and it was not a member of the Swiss Confederacy. Instead, the lands of Ticino were divided into vogteien or condominiums, i.e. dominions or possessions of the cantons of Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden and the other Swiss cantons. These territories were ruled as subjects and therefore did not have the same rights or status as the Swiss cantons. In 1755 the Italian population of the Leventina Valley unsuccessfully revolted against Uri in a bid for independence. The revolt was suppressed and the leaders Giovan Antonio Forni, Lorenzo Orsi and Giuseppe Sartore were beheaded.

In 1798 the Swiss Confederacy was conquered by Napoleon. The area of modern Ticino, together with the other Swiss cantons, formed part of the short-lived Helvetic Republic (1798-1803) — a client state of Napoleon's French Empire. The territory of Ticino was initially divided into two cantons: the Canton of Bellinzona and the Canton of Lugano. This Italian region — subjected to the Swiss cantons for nearly three centuries — became equal in status to the other Swiss cantons for the first time. However, the Italians were not entirely content: a movement was founded in the region by local Italian patriots who wanted these cantons to be annexed to the Italian Cisalpine Republic. Their wishes were ignored. With the Act of Mediation in 1803, the two cantons of Bellinzona and Lugano were organized into a single canton for the first time, known as the Canton of Ticino, which became a member of the restored Swiss Confederation—another client state of Napoleon's French Empire.

From 1810-1813 Italian troops, led by General Achille Fontanelli, occupied Ticino with the intention of annexing it to the Kingdom of Italy. After the fall of Napoleon in 1814, Ticino was returned to the Swiss Confederation, which adopted a decentralized political system. Between 1815-1830 Ticino attempted to rule autonomously within the Confederation. Ticino was effected by the Liberal Revolution of 1830, and for the remainder of the century the canton suffered from political struggles between conservatives and liberals. Many monasteries were closed, religious education was suppressed and Ticino was secularized by the liberal government. For this reason, despite being historically and nominally Catholic, Ticino did not join the 1845-1847 Sonderbund (a league of conservative Catholic cantons which sought independence from the liberal Protestant cantons). The liberals of Ticino, however, did support the Italian Risorgimento, which caused the Austrians to impose an economic blockade against Ticino and expel more than 6,000 Ticinese residents from Austrian-ruled Lombardy in 1853.

Modern Switzerland was created in 1848 as a federal state, after the end of the Sonderbund Civil War of 1847, with Ticino as one of its 25 cantons. Since that date Ticino has remained part of Switzerland and has come to be regarded as "Swiss". Today, the cantons of Ticino and Grigioni form Svizzera Italiana or Italian Switzerland.


Attempted Germanization of Ticino

Historically, the Old Swiss Confederacy established in the 13th century was composed only of German-speaking cantons. But over the course of the next few centuries, the German cantons expanded and conquered Francophone, Italian and Romansh-speaking territories. The Germans formed much of the ruling political class and the majority of the federal government; they favoured the centralization of the State and German immigration to the Romance cantons, and in the 20th century assured that German became the dominant language of the mass media, business and popular culture in Switzerland. Nevertheless, the Canton of Ticino has retained its Italian heritage and identity.

Geographically Ticino is situated in the Italian peninsula and forms part of the region of Lombardy; the entire canton is located south of the Alps and is cut off from the rest of Switzerland by a spine of mountains, and is accessible only through the San Gottardo Pass. The town of Campione d'Italia forms an Italian exclave, administratively part of the Province of Como, Italy, but located within Ticino. Ticino's location has had a decisive impact on its history and culture. Today Italian is the only official language of Ticino and the cantonal constitution explicitly states that the culture and identity of Ticino is Italian. However, this is not due to a lack of effort to eliminate the Italian character of the region. Many attempts have been made over the years by the Swiss government to Germanize Ticino and eliminate its Italian character, particularly in the 19th and 20th centuries.

The first major assault came in 1859, when the federal government of Switzerland abruptly rejected the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the bishops of Como and Milan without the consent of the Holy See. The churches of Ticino were part of the dioceses of Como and Milan since time immemorial, and had always remained part of these two dioceses without interruption up until this time period. However, in an attempt to bring Ticino under the Swiss-German diocese of Basel-Solothurn and suppress the influence of the Risorgimento (and thus prevent the anticipated annexation of Ticino to Italy), the Swiss federal government refused to recognize the authority of Como and Milan over the churches in Ticino. This decision was eventually acknowledged by Pope Leo XIII, who detached Ticino from Como and Milan in 1884 and authorized the creation of the Diocese of Lugano-Basel in 1888, thereby officially ending the millenial ecclesiastical link between Ticino and Lombardy. The Diocese of Lugano did not become separated from Basel until 1971.

For the first several decades of the 20th century the Swiss federal government — dominated by a German majority — persistently interfered in the affairs of Ticino and attempted to limit Ticino's cantonal autonomy and authority. The Swiss government also began to persecute Italian patriots. During World War I, many Swiss-Italians volunteered in the Italian Army. In response, the Swiss government enacted surveillance against Italians in Ticino, who became subjected to fines, censorship, home searches, arbitrary arrests, systematic violation of private mail and charges of espionage. The Swiss-German authorities also banned pro-Italian gatherings. On May 26, 1915 an Italian crowd defied the ban by gathering in Lugano and shouting "Long live Italy!". The Swiss military intervened, which almost led to a massacre of Italian civilians. In 1934 Italian nationalists organized the "March on Bellinzona", an unarmed demonstration expressing desire for unification with Italy. In this same time period the Swiss government renewed their persecution of Italian patriots, such as the Swiss-Italian journalist Teresina Bontempi. Her journal L'Adula was suspended several times for denouncing Germanization, and in 1935 she was imprisoned by the Swiss government on charges of "treason" for promoting irredentism in Ticino. She was exiled to Italy in 1936.

Another method of attempted Germanization in the 20th century was the migration of Germans into Ticino. In 1880 the total population of Ticino was 130,777; Germans were only 0.8% of the population (1,054 Germans), while Italians were 98.9% (129,409 Italians). But in 1930, a mere 50 years later, the German population rose to 7.3% (11,622 Germans), while the Italian population dropped to 91% (145,347 Italians). By 1941 the German population in Ticino swelled to 8.15% (13,209 Germans) and had taken over a disproportionate amount of top positions in the local economy. This increase of German-speakers in the early-to-mid 20th century was not a natural progression; it transpired due to the rapid influx of German immigrants and the accelerated use of the German language in public affairs, leading to ethnic tension between the native Italians, the German immigrants and the Swiss government. German immigration to Ticino intensified in the 1950's and reached its peak in 1980 when Germans became 11.1% of the population, before dropping back down to 8.3% in 2000.

Ticino today has a very large foreign immigrant population (94,366 foreigners, equal to 27.2% of the population). However, nearly half of them are fellow Italians from the neighboring provinces of Italy. Italians therefore are still 85% of the population. Thanks to its proximity to Italy and isolation from the other cantons, the Canton of Ticino has managed to escape the same fate as the neighboring Grigioni, where the Italian and Romansh-speakers — who previously formed 64% of Grigioni's population in 1803 and 50% in 1910 — have become a minority in their own land. Ticino, on the other hand, is still strongly Italian by comparison.

Measures have been taken by the local cantonal government to defend and preserve the Italian character of Ticino. The Constitution of Ticino, Article 1 states:

"The Canton Ticino is a democratic republic of Italian culture and language."

The Communication by the Canton Ticino on December 20, 1984 concerning the revision of the Constitution states:

"As well as referring to the democratic form and the Italian language, as a characteristic of the Canton, the Constitution also refers explicitly to Italian culture: the fact that the Canton Ticino belongs not only to the Italian language region but also to the Italian cultural region is a fundamental element of its history and an essential component of its identity. Furthermore, that clear reference to Italian language and culture is not mere rhetoric: it represents a significant commitment which the Ticino authorities and people must give to an increasingly effective promotion of their Italianity."

Notable Italians

Many notable Italians came from Ticino, especially architects. Ticino has a very strong architectural tradition and has produced more architects per capita than any other region in the world, and in a record span of time (most of them lived between the 15th and 19th centuries), and while living in oppressive conditions as subjects of the Swiss. Ticino's architects includes men who revolutionized the history of architecture, and men who worked all over Europe and achieved international fame.

Some of the most important Italians from Ticino:

• Francesco Borromini - Architect; one of the founders of baroque architecture
• Luigi Canonica - Architect and urban planner; official architect of the Cisalpine Republic
• Carlo Maderno - Architect; one of the founders of baroque architecture; designed the facade of St. Peter's Basilica
• Domenico Gilardi - Architect; helped rebuild Moscow after its destruction by Napoleon
• Giovanni Battista di Quadro - Architect; helped build and rebuild Poznan in Poland
• Giovanni Battista Trevano - Architect; introduced the baroque style to Poland
• Francesco Boffo - Architect; helped build Odessa in Ukraine
• Ippolit Monighetti - Architect; worked in Russia
• Cosimo Morelli - Architect; worked in the Papal States
• Pietro Nobile - Architect; leading architect of the Habsburg court
• Francesco Righetti - Architect; worked in Argentina
• Domenico Rossi - Architect; worked in Venice
• Luigi Rusca - Architect; worked in Russia and Ukraine
• Gaetano Matteo Pisoni - Architect; worked in Belgium and Switzerland
• Giovanni Antonio Viscardi - Architect; worked in Bavaria
• Pietro Morettini - Architect and military engineer; worked in Germany, Italy, Belgium and the Netherlands
• Bernardacci Brothers - Architects; worked in Russia
• Fossati Brothers - Architects; renovated Hagia Sophia
• Lafranchini Brothers - Stuccoists; worked on the palladian houses of Ireland
• Giuseppe Artari - Stuccoist; worked in Germany and Great Britain
• Giovanni Pietro Magni - Stuccoist; worked on the Würzburg Cathedral
• Antonio Raggi - Sculptor and stuccoist
• Giovanni Antonio Pilacorte - Sculptor
• Grazioso Rusca - Sculptor
• Camillo Rusconi - Sculptor
• Vincenzo Vela - Sculptor
• Giovanni Battista Bagutti - Painter
• Carlo Bossoli - Painter
• Antonio Ciseri - Painter
• Francesco Antonio Giorgioli - Painter
• Giuseppe Antonio Orelli - Painter
• Vincenzo Angelo Orelli - Painter
• Giuseppe Antonio Petrini - Painter
• Francesco Innocenzo Torriani - Painter
• Giuseppe Antonio Maria Torricelli - Painter
• Giovan Giacomo Paleari Fratino - Military engineer
• Domenico Reina - Tenor
• Gian Battista Mantegazzi - Composer
• Maestro Martino da Como - Gastronomist and chef; the world's first celebrity chef
• Carlo Gatti - Entrepreneur; the first to make ice cream available to the general public
• Carlo Ponti - Photographer and optician; inventor of the alethoscope and megalethoscope
• Nicolò Rusca - Priest and martyr; tortured and murdered by Protestants
• Romano Amerio - Theologian and critic against the Second Vatican Council
• Teresina Bontempi - Journalist and irredentist
• Francesco Chiesa - Poet and teacher; co-founded the Ticinese branch of the Dante Alighieri Society
• Leonardo Conti - Doctor, SS-Obergruppenfuhrer and Reich Health Leader of National Socialist Germany

There have also been several architectural and artisan families from Ticino:

• Adamini Family - Family of architects who worked in St. Petersburg, Russia. The most prominent was Domenico Adamini (1792-1860). Other members were Leone (1727/1728-1764), Agostino (1752-1792), Tommaso (1763/1764-1828), Leone (1789-1854), Antonio (1792-1846) and Tommaso Adamini (1823-1850), all of whom worked in Russia; some of them were nominated master builders of the Imperial Court. Giuseppe Antonio Adamini (1756) was an architect for the Royal Court in Lisbon, Portugal and in India. Later members of the family were Bernardo (1834-1900), Clemente (1832-1907), Tommaso (1829-1887) and Emilio Adamini (1854-1914), all of whom were hydraulic and railway engineers who specialized in the construction of railroads.

• Albertolli Family - Family of architects, stuccoists and painters from Bedano who worked in Italy in the 18th and 19th centuries. Members of the family included Francesco Saverio Albertolli (1701-1761), architect; Michele Albertolli (1732-1761), architect; Grato Albertolli (1740-1812), stuccoist; Giocondo Albertolli (1743-1839), architect, painter, sculptor, stuccoist and knight of the Iron Crown; Gian Giacomo Albertolli (1761-1805), professor of civil architecture; Raffaele Albertolli (1770-1812), painter, engraver and stuccoist; Ferdinando Albertolli (1780-1844), architect and professor of design; and Fedele Albertolli (1789-1832), painter. They were possibly related to the 16th century architect Giovanni Albertalli of Grigioni.

• Agustoni Family - Family of architects who worked in Genoa, Germany, Czechia and the Papal States. The most important was Lazaro Agustoni (1570-1642), who remodeled Würzburg Cathedral and built many churches in Germany and Prague with his brother Francesco. His nephew Giacomo Agustoni (1668-1735) built baroque structures in Bohemia. His other nephew Domenico Agustoni (1606-1681) was a foreman in Prague. Battista Agustoni (1565-1616) and Agostino Agustoni (1570-1616) were master builders in Genoa. Antonio Agustoni (1669-1729) worked as a stuccoist in Copenhagen. Pietro Agustoni (1741-1815) worked in the Papal States. One branch of the family became known as the Cantone or Cantoni family, represented by the architects Antonio Cantone, Bernardino Cantone (1505-1576/1580) and Pietro or Pier Francesco Cantone (1585-1657). Other members included Francesco Maria Cantoni (1685-1712), Pietro Cantoni (1710-1785), Gaetano Cantoni (1745-1827) and Simone Cantoni (1739-1818), who was one of the major neoclassical architects in Italy.

• Aostalli Family - Family of architects who worked in Prague. The most important members of the family were Giovanni Maria Aostalli (1500-1567), Giovanni Battista Aostalli (1510-1575) and Ulrico Aostalli de Sala (1525-1597).

• Bagnato Family - Family of master builders who worked in Switzerland and Germany. The most important members of the family were Paolo Bagnato (1660-1704), Giovanni Gaspare Bagnato (1696-1757) and Francesco Antonio Bagnato (1731-1810).

• Brenni Family - Family of stuccoists and architects from Salorino who helped introduce Late Baroque style to Germany. There were over a dozen members of the family who worked around Europe. The most famous were Carlo Enrico Brenno (1688-1745), who worked in Germany and Denmark, and Vincenzo Brenna (1747-1820), who was the leading court architect of Tsarist Russia.

• Bussi Family - Family of painters and stuccoists from Bissone who worked in Austria, Bavaria and Czechia. The most notable members were Carlo Antonio Bussi (1658-1690), a painter who worked in Passau Cathedral and decorated many churches in Austria, and Santino Bussi (1664-1736), a stuccoist who worked in many castles in Austria and Czechia.

• Carabelli Family - Family of artisans from Castel San Pietro who worked in Portugal, Italy and Ticino. Members of the family included Giovanni Albino Carabelli (1690-1766), sculptor and engraver of the Royal Court of Portugal; Giuseppe Carabelli (1722-1803), woodcarver; Francesco Carabelli (1737-1798), sculptor who worked in Milan; Donato Carabelli (1760-1839), sculptor and stuccoist who worked in the Milan Cathedral; Casimiro Carabelli (1774-1840), stuccoist.

• Carlone Family - The Carlone or Carloni was a prolific artisan family composed of architects, master builders, stuccoists and painters who worked in Central Europe and Italy in the Baroque and Rococo periods. The family was divided into two main branches: the Carlone di Scaria in Lombardy and the Carlone di Rovio in modern Ticino. Most of them were itinerant artists. Members of the Ticino branch included: Antonio Carlone (1470-1520), architect and sculptor; Michele Carlone (1468-1519), architect and sculptor; Giovanni Carloni (1510-1576), sculptor; Taddeo Carlone (1543-1615), architect and sculptor; Giovanni Bernado Carlone (1584-1631), painter; Giovanni Battista Carlone (1603-1684), painter; Giovanni Andrea Carlone (1639-1697), painter; Giovanni Carlone (1636-1717), painter; Giovanni Battista Carlone (1580/90-1645), architect; Giuseppe Maria Carlone (1646-1695), architect and sculptor.

• Casella Family - Family of sculptors and stuccoists from Carona who worked in Italy. The most notable member was Daniele Casella (1557-1646), one of the most important sculptors of Genoa in the 16th and 17th centuries. Other members included Donato Casella (c. 1505-1560), Alvise Casella (1525-1590), Francesco Casella (1540-1602), Giovanni Battista Casella de Annibale (1623-1678), Giovanni Battista Casella de Monora (c. 1620-1679) and many others.

• Castello Family - The Castello or Castelli was a family of stuccoists and architects from Melide who worked in Germany and Austria. The most notable member was Matteo Castelli (1555-1632), official architect of the Royal Court of Poland who co-designed the Royal Castle in Warsaw..

• Colomba Family - Family of architects, painters and stuccoists from Arogno who worked in Austria, Germany, Italy, Poland, Hungary, Ticino and Prague. Members of the family included Andrea Colomba (1567-1627), stuccoist; Giovanni Antonio Colomba (1585-1650), stuccoist; Cristoforo Colomba (1625-1680), architect and stuccoist; Giovanni Battista Colomba (1638-1693), architect, painter and stuccoist; Luca Antonio Colomba (1674-1737), painter; Giovanni Battista Innocenzo Colomba (1717-1793), architect, painter and stage designer.

• Contin Family - Family of architects and sculptors who worked in Venice in the 16th and 17th centuries. The family produced four artisans who each worked in architecture and sculpture: Bernardino Contin (1530-1596) and his three sons Antonio Contin (1566-1600), Tommaso Contin (1570-1634) and Francesco Contin (1585-1654). Bernardino Contin was the son of Venetian architect Antonio da Ponte (1512-1597). Antonio Contin assisted his grandfather in the construction of the Rialto Bridge in Venice.

• Fontana Family - One of the most prolific and important architectural families from Ticino. The most notable members of the family were Domenico Fontana (1543-1607), who completed the dome of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, and his nephew Carlo Fontana (1638-1714), who introduced classicism to Baroque architecture. Other members included Giovanni Fontana (1540-1614), architect, engineer and Dominican friar; Giulio Cesare Fontana (1580-1627), architect and engineer; Baldassarre Fontana (1661-1733), architect and stuccoist who worked in Bavaria, Moravia and Poland; Francesco Fontana (1668-1708), architect and engineer; Giovanni Maria Fontana (1670-1712), architect who worked in Russia; Giuseppe Fontana (1676-1739), architect who worked in Poland; Jacopo Fontana (1710-1773), architect of the Royal Court of Poland; Giovanni Antonio Fontana (1738-1803), architect; Luigi Fontana (1824-1894), architect who worked in Russia. A branch of the family in Valsolda included Paolo Fontana (1696-1765), architect who worked in Poland and helped introduce Baroque architecture to Ukraine.

• Gagini Family - Family of architects and sculptors who worked in Italy. The family produced a dozen sculptors between the 15th and 18th centuries. The most important were Domenico Gagini (1420-1492) and Antonello Gagini (1478-1536), who worked on the Palermo Cathedral. Other notable members were Giacomo Gagini (1517-1598), Fazio Gagini (1520-1567) and Vincenzo Gagini (1527-1595).

• Lombardo Family - Family of architects and sculptors from Carona who worked primarily in Venice. They were a branch of the Solari or Solaro Family who changed their name to Lombardo after moving to Venice. The most notable members were Pietro Lombardo (1435-1515), Tullio Lombardo (1455-1532), Antonio Lombardo (1458-1516) and Sante Lombardo (1504-1560). They designed many Venetian tombs and churches.

• Lucchese Family - Family of architects, stuccoists, painters and geometers. The family was ivided into two branches: one from Pambio and one from Melide. The most notable member of the Melide branch was Filiberto Lucchese (1606-1666), one of the main architects of the Viennese court in the 17th century. He also worked in Bohemia and Moravia. He was in charge of the fortifications of Vienna and the eastern border of the Habsburg Empire. His grandfather Alberto Lucchese (c. 1545-1600) was court architect in Innsbruck.

• Lucchini Family - Family of architects from Collina d'Oro. Members of the family included Luca Lucchini (1720-1788), architect who worked in the Bergamo area; Giovanni Francesco Lucchini (1755-1826), architect who worked in Bergamo; Giuseppe Lucchini (1756-1829), architect who worked in Russia; and Pasquale Lucchini (1798-1892), architect and engineer who designed tunnels and roads in Ticino and was one of the founders of the Bank of Italian Switzerland.

• Maggi Family - Family of architects from Bruzella who worked in Czechia and Italy. The most notable members of the family were Giacomo Antonio Maggi (1636-1706), Pietro Maggi (1642-1709) and Pietro Maggi (1756-1816).

• Maraini Family - Family of artists, architects, intellectuals and entrepreneurs in Italy and Japan in the 19th and 20th centuries. The most notable members of the family were: Adelaide Pandiani Maraini (1835-1917), sculptress; Clemente Maraini (1838-1905), engineer and building contractor; Emilio Maraini (1853-1916), deputy of the Kingdom of Italy and founder of the Italian sugar industry; Enrico Maraini (1855-1938), banker and building contractor; Otto Maraini (1863-1944), architect; Carolina Maraini Sommaruga (1869-1959), countess; Antonio Maraini (1886-1963), artist and deputy of the Kingdom of Italy; Fosco Maraini (1912-2004), anthropologist, ethnologist, mountaineer, photographer and writer. Descendants of the family still exist today.

• Pellegrini Family - A prolific family from Coglio which attained prominence in Savoy, Italy, France and Argentina. The founder of the family was Bernardo Pellegrini (born 1758). His sons included Jean Claude Pellegrini (1787-1854), Chief Engineer of the Corps of Bridges and Roads in France; Barthélemy Charles Gaétan Pellegrini (1790-1832), military engineer in Metz; Jean Bernard Pellegrini (1794-1865), architect; and Charles Henri Pellegrini (1800-1875), engineer, lithographer, painter and architect. His grandsons included the architect Charles-Bernard Pellegrini (1819-1864) and the President of Argentina Carlos Pellegrini (1846-1906).

• Pozzi Family - Family of architects, painters and stuccoists from Bruzella who worked in Germany, Switzerland and Italy. Members of the family included Francesco Pozzi (1704-1789), architect, painter and stuccoist; Giuseppe Antonio Pozzi (1732-1811), stuccoist; Carlo Luca Pozzi (1734-1812), sculptor and stuccoist; Domenico Pozzi (1745-1796), painter and historian; Giovanni Domenico Francesco Pozzi (1755-1796), painter; Carlo Ignazio Pozzi (1766-1842), architect, painter and stage designer; and Massimiliano Giuseppe Pozzi (1770-1842), sculptor.

• Solari Family - The Solaro or Solari was a family of architects and sculptors from Carona who worked primarily Italy, but also in Russia and France. Members of the family included Marco Solari (1355-1405), master builder who worked on the Milan Cathedral and the Certosa di Pavia; Giovanni Solari (1400-1482), architect and engineer who worked on the the Milan Cathedral and the Certosa di Pavia; Guiniforte Solari (1429-1481), architect, engineer and sculptor; Francesco Solari (1430-1475), architect and sculptor; Pietro Antonio Solari (1445-1493), architect and sculptor who worked in Moscow; Andrea Solari (1465-1524), painter who worked in France and Italy; and Cristoforo Solari (1468-1524), architect and sculptor. A branch of the Solari Family moved to Venice and changed their name to Lombardo.

• Tencalla Family - Family of artists and architects from Bissone who worked in Auastria, Germany, Poland, Czechia and Italy. Members of the family included Giovanni Giacomo Tencalla (1591-1653), architect and sculptor of the royal courts of Vienna and Poland; Costante Tencalla (1593-1646), architect of the Royal Court of Poland; Carpoforo Tencalla (1623-1685), painter who helped introduce Early Baroque style in Central Europe; Giovanni Pietro Tencalla (1629-1702), architect and sculptor of the Royal Court of Vienna; Giacomo Tencalla (1644-1689), painter who worked in Czechia; and Carpoforo Mazzetti Tencalla (1685-1743), painter, sculptor and stuccoist in Venice.

• Trefogli Family - Family of painters, artisans, architects and engineers from Torricella who worked in Piedmont and Peru in the 19th and 20th centuries. The most notable member of the family was Marco Antonio Trefogli (1782-1854), painter and stuccoist. He had 11 children, including Michele Trefogli (1838-1928), architect, engineer and State Architect of Peru; Bernardo Trefogli, painter; Paolo Trefogli, architect and engineer; and Camillo Trefogli, merchant.

• Trezzini Family - Family of architects from Astano who worked in Russia in the 18th century. The most important member of the family was Domenico Trezzini (1670-1734), who introduced the baroque style to Russia. Other members included Pietro Antonio Trezzini (1692-1760), Carlo Giuseppe Trezzini (1697-1768), Pietro Trezzini (1710-1734), Matteo Trezzini (1710-1750) and Giuseppe Trezzini (1732-1785). The last notable member was Angelo Trezzini (1827-1904), painter, lithographer and illustrator in Milan.